MCAT Psychological Social Foundations Flashcards: 7c Cognitive Processes Learning

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This deck focuses on 7c Cognitive Processes Learning, giving you a quick way to review the definitions, rules, and examples that matter most for MCAT Psychological Social Foundations.

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Work through these flashcards in short sessions. Try to answer each prompt before flipping the card, then revisit any cards you miss until the explanation feels automatic.

Flashcard 1: Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

Answer: Variable-ratio schedule. Unpredictable count maintains high, steady responding.

Flashcard 2: What is the definition of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Answer: Adding a stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is strengthened by presenting a reward.

Flashcard 3: What is the difference between stimulus generalization and discrimination?

Answer: Generalization: similar stimuli elicit CR; discrimination: only CS does. Generalization extends the response to similar stimuli, while discrimination refines it to the specific conditioned stimulus through differential reinforcement.

Flashcard 4: What is the definition of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Answer: Adding a stimulus to increase behavior frequency. Like giving praise or rewards to encourage repetition.

Flashcard 5: What is the Rescorla-Wagner model's core claim about when conditioning occurs?

Answer: Conditioning depends on prediction error (unexpectedness of the US). The model posits that learning strengthens when the unconditioned stimulus is surprising, quantifying associative changes via prediction errors.

Flashcard 6: What is reciprocal determinism in social cognitive theory?

Answer: Person, behavior, and environment mutually influence each other. Bidirectional causation creates a dynamic system of influence.

Flashcard 7: What is latent learning in cognitive approaches to learning?

Answer: Learning that occurs without reinforcement and appears when needed. Knowledge remains dormant until a situation requires its use.

Flashcard 8: Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time.

Answer: Fixed-interval schedule. First response after set time earns reinforcement.

Flashcard 9: What is observational learning (modeling) in social cognitive theory?

Answer: Learning by watching others and the outcomes of their actions. Bandura's theory highlights how individuals acquire behaviors by imitating models, especially when outcomes are observed as rewarding or punishing.

Flashcard 10: Which option best defines exposure therapy for anxiety-related disorders?

Answer: Repeated, controlled exposure to feared stimuli to reduce fear via extinction. It facilitates habituation and extinction by confronting phobic stimuli directly, reducing avoidance and anxiety in behavioral treatments.

Flashcard 11: What is the difference between fixed-interval and variable-interval reinforcement schedules?

Answer: Fixed: set time; Variable: unpredictable time until reinforcement. Fixed has predictable delays; variable has random delays.

Flashcard 12: What is the difference between a fixed interval and variable interval reinforcement schedule?

Answer: Fixed: set time; variable: unpredictable time before reward availability. Fixed interval reinforces after a consistent time lapse, whereas variable interval uses unpredictable intervals, affecting scalloped or steady response rates.

Flashcard 13: What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Answer: Initial learning phase when CS–US association is formed. The period when the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned.

Flashcard 14: What is latent learning?

Answer: Learning that occurs without reinforcement and appears later. Tolman's rats showed knowledge only when motivated by reward.

Flashcard 15: What is classical conditioning defined as in terms of stimulus pairing and involuntary response?

Answer: Learning via CS–US pairing so CS elicits a reflexive CR. This process involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned one to produce an involuntary response, forming the basis of Pavlovian learning.

Flashcard 16: What is vicarious reinforcement in observational learning?

Answer: Increased behavior after seeing a model rewarded for it. Observing positive outcomes motivates adoption of the behavior.

Flashcard 17: Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a fixed time interval if a response occurs.

Answer: Fixed-interval schedule. Time-based with scalloped response pattern near interval end.

Flashcard 18: What is a cognitive map?

Answer: A mental representation of spatial relationships. Tolman's rats developed these even without reinforcement.

Flashcard 19: What is a token economy in behavior modification?

Answer: System where tokens are earned and exchanged for reinforcers. This operant technique uses symbolic reinforcers to bridge delays, promoting desired behaviors in therapeutic or educational settings.

Flashcard 20: What is the difference between a fixed ratio and variable ratio reinforcement schedule?

Answer: Fixed: set responses; variable: unpredictable responses for reward. Fixed ratio provides reinforcement after a predictable number of responses, while variable ratio uses an average, leading to different response patterns.

Flashcard 21: What is the definition of positive punishment in operant conditioning?

Answer: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior frequency. Like scolding or giving extra work to discourage behavior.

Flashcard 22: What is a cognitive map in the context of spatial learning?

Answer: A mental representation of spatial relationships in an environment. Internal navigation system formed through environmental exploration.

Flashcard 23: What is self-efficacy in social cognitive theory?

Answer: Belief in one's ability to succeed at a specific task. Influences persistence and effort; shaped by past experiences.

Flashcard 24: Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.

Answer: Fixed-ratio schedule. Predictable count creates steady response patterns.

Flashcard 25: What is the definition of an unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning?

Answer: Stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response. Triggers an automatic, unlearned response without prior conditioning.

Flashcard 26: What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

Answer: Negative reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, whereas punishment aims to weaken it through adverse consequences.

Flashcard 27: What is the definition of a conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?

Answer: Previously neutral stimulus that predicts the unconditioned stimulus. Through pairing, it gains the ability to trigger a learned response.

Flashcard 28: Which concept explains why behavior change is easier when outcomes are self-efficacy enhancing?

Answer: Self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to perform a behavior). Confidence in ability predicts successful behavior change.

Flashcard 29: What is insight learning as described by Gestalt psychologists?

Answer: Sudden problem solving via a new mental representation of relationships. Kohler's work illustrated how reorganization of perceptual elements leads to abrupt solutions, contrasting trial-and-error learning methods.

Flashcard 30: Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.

Answer: Fixed-ratio schedule. Every nth response earns reinforcement (e.g., every 5th).

Flashcard 31: What is extinction in operant conditioning?

Answer: Behavior decreases when reinforcement is withheld. Withholding reinforcement results in the gradual decline of the previously reinforced behavior in operant contexts.

Flashcard 32: What is negative punishment, stated in terms of adding or removing a stimulus?

Answer: Removing a valued stimulus to decrease a behavior. It involves withdrawing a desirable stimulus to diminish the occurrence of an unwanted behavior in operant paradigms.

Flashcard 33: What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Answer: Initial learning of the CS–US association. The phase when the organism learns to connect CS and US.

Flashcard 34: Which term describes learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an aversive stimulus?

Answer: Conditioned aversion (classical conditioning of an aversive response). Creates negative associations through classical conditioning.

Flashcard 35: What is vicarious punishment?

Answer: Decreased behavior after seeing a model punished. Observer avoids behaviors that led to negative outcomes for others.

Flashcard 36: What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

Answer: Positive adds a stimulus; negative removes an aversive stimulus. Both increase behavior but through different mechanisms.

Flashcard 37: What is observational learning (social learning) in the context of behavior change?

Answer: Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive. Bandura's theory where behaviors are acquired through observation.

Flashcard 38: Which reinforcement schedule typically produces the highest, most persistent response rate?

Answer: Variable ratio schedule. It maintains high response rates due to unpredictability, mimicking addictive behaviors like gambling in operant conditioning schedules.

Flashcard 39: What is the definition of negative punishment in operant conditioning?

Answer: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is weakened by taking away something pleasant.

Flashcard 40: Identify the term for a sudden reappearance of a previously reinforced behavior during extinction.

Answer: Extinction burst. Temporary increase in responding when reinforcement stops.

Flashcard 41: What is the key difference between modeling and imitation in observational learning?

Answer: Modeling is demonstrating; imitation is copying the demonstrated act. One shows the behavior; the other replicates what was shown.

Flashcard 42: Which four processes did Bandura propose are required for observational learning?

Answer: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. ARRM: must notice, remember, be able to do, and want to do it.

Flashcard 43: What is the definition of classical conditioning in learning theory?

Answer: Learning by associating two stimuli so one predicts the other. Pavlov's dogs exemplify this pairing process.

Flashcard 44: What is vicarious reinforcement in social learning theory?

Answer: Increased behavior after observing another person being rewarded. Learning occurs by observing consequences to others.

Flashcard 45: What is insight learning?

Answer: A sudden realization of a problem's solution. Kohler's chimps solved problems through understanding, not trial-and-error.

Flashcard 46: Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time.

Answer: Variable-interval schedule. Unpredictable timing produces steady, moderate response rates.

Flashcard 47: Identify the schedule: reinforcement after a variable time interval if a response occurs.

Answer: Variable-interval schedule. Unpredictable timing produces steady, moderate response rates.

Flashcard 48: What is the Rescorla-Wagner model's key idea about prediction error?

Answer: Learning depends on surprise: mismatch between expected and actual US. Learning is strongest when outcomes violate expectations.

Flashcard 49: What is observational learning (social learning) according to Bandura?

Answer: Learning by watching others and modeling their behavior. Requires attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Flashcard 50: Identify the schedule: reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses.

Answer: Variable-ratio schedule. Unpredictable response count creates high, steady responding.

Flashcard 51: What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Answer: Assimilation fits schemas; accommodation changes schemas. New info either fits existing mental structures or requires restructuring.

Flashcard 52: What is the overjustification effect in motivation and behavior change?

Answer: External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for a task. Rewards can undermine natural enjoyment of activities.

Flashcard 53: What is the definition of positive punishment in operant conditioning?

Answer: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is weakened by presenting something unpleasant.

Flashcard 54: Identify the term for learning that a cue predicts an aversive event, producing fear responses.

Answer: Conditioned (learned) fear. This occurs through classical conditioning where a neutral cue paired with threat elicits anticipatory fear, underlying many anxiety responses.

Flashcard 55: Identify the attribution: "I failed because I am not smart," emphasizing an internal stable cause.

Answer: Internal, stable attribution (ability-based). Attributes failure to unchangeable personal characteristics.

Flashcard 56: What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

Answer: Primary: innate value; secondary: learned value via association. Primary reinforcers satisfy basic biological needs inherently, while secondary ones gain value through classical conditioning associations.

Flashcard 57: What is the definition of negative punishment in operant conditioning?

Answer: Removing a desired stimulus to decrease behavior frequency. Like taking away privileges or toys.

Flashcard 58: Which option best defines self-efficacy in Bandura's social cognitive theory?

Answer: Belief in one's ability to perform behaviors needed to reach goals. It represents an individual's confidence in executing actions for desired outcomes, influencing motivation and persistence in social cognitive frameworks.

Flashcard 59: What is observational learning (social learning) as described by Bandura?

Answer: Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive. Bobo doll experiments showed children imitate observed aggression.

Flashcard 60: What is vicarious punishment in observational learning?

Answer: Decreased behavior after seeing a model punished for it. Observing negative consequences discourages the behavior.

Flashcard 61: What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Answer: Intrinsic: internal interest; extrinsic: external reward or avoidance. One comes from within; the other from outside consequences.

Flashcard 62: What is the definition of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Answer: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior frequency. Like stopping nagging when chores are done.

Flashcard 63: What is the definition of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Answer: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. The behavior is strengthened by ending something unpleasant.

Flashcard 64: Identify the behavior therapy that pairs relaxation with a feared stimulus in a graded hierarchy.

Answer: Systematic desensitization. Wolpe's technique uses counterconditioning by progressively exposing individuals to anxiety-provoking stimuli while inducing incompatible relaxation states.

Flashcard 65: What four processes are required for Bandura observational learning to occur?

Answer: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. ARRM: must notice, remember, be able to do, and want to do it.

Flashcard 66: What is higher-order (second-order) conditioning?

Answer: A CS becomes associated with a new stimulus, creating a new CS. The first CS can train a second neutral stimulus without the US.

Flashcard 67: What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Answer: Intrinsic is internal interest; extrinsic is external reward. Behavior driven by enjoyment vs. external consequences.

Flashcard 68: What is insight learning (Köhler) as a cognitive process in problem solving?

Answer: Sudden solution realization by reorganizing the problem mentally. "Aha!" moment when pieces suddenly fit together mentally.

Flashcard 69: What is the Premack principle as a behavior change rule?

Answer: High-probability behavior reinforces a low-probability behavior. This principle leverages preferred activities as reinforcers for less preferred ones, based on their relative probabilities in behavior modification.

Flashcard 70: What is reciprocal determinism?

Answer: Person, behavior, and environment mutually influence each other. Bandura's triadic model of bidirectional interactions.

Flashcard 71: What is outcome expectancy in social cognitive theory?

Answer: Belief that a behavior will lead to a specific outcome. Expectations about consequences influence behavior choices.

Flashcard 72: What is attribution theory primarily used to explain in behavior change?

Answer: How people explain causes of behavior and outcomes. Internal vs. external and stable vs. unstable causal beliefs.

Flashcard 73: Which schedule of reinforcement typically produces the highest, most persistent response rate?

Answer: Variable-ratio schedule. Gambling-like unpredictability creates strongest response patterns.

Flashcard 74: What is the definition of a conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning?

Answer: Learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus. Results from pairing CS with US during conditioning trials.

Flashcard 75: What is latent learning, and how is it typically revealed?

Answer: Learning without reinforcement, shown when incentive becomes available. Tolman's experiments showed that cognitive maps form without immediate rewards, emerging when motivation arises, challenging strict behaviorism.

Flashcard 76: What is the difference between modeling and imitation in observational learning?

Answer: Modeling is demonstrating; imitation is copying the model. Models perform behaviors; observers reproduce what they see.

Flashcard 77: Which reinforcement schedule produces the highest response rate and greatest resistance to extinction?

Answer: Variable-ratio reinforcement schedule. Unpredictable rewards create persistent responding.

Flashcard 78: What is observational learning?

Answer: Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior. Also called social learning; requires no direct reinforcement.

Flashcard 79: What is self-efficacy as used in theories of learning and behavior change?

Answer: Belief in one's ability to perform behaviors to reach a goal. Confidence in executing actions affects motivation and persistence.

Flashcard 80: What is the definition of operant conditioning in learning theory?

Answer: Learning in which consequences shape the likelihood of behavior. Skinner's work showed how rewards and punishments modify behavior.

Flashcard 81: What is positive punishment, stated in terms of adding or removing a stimulus?

Answer: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior. This form of punishment introduces an undesirable stimulus to reduce the likelihood of the behavior recurring in operant conditioning.

Flashcard 82: What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer: Increased behavior after seeing a model rewarded. Observer learns from consequences experienced by the model.

Flashcard 83: What is operant conditioning defined as in terms of behavior and consequences?

Answer: Learning in which consequences shape voluntary behavior. It relies on rewards and punishments to modify voluntary actions, emphasizing the role of environmental consequences in behavior shaping.

Flashcard 84: What is equilibration in Piagetian cognitive development?

Answer: Restoring balance between schemas and new information. Cognitive conflict drives schema modification and learning.

Flashcard 85: Which concept explains why behavior change is more durable when reinforcement is gradually reduced over time?

Answer: Partial reinforcement effect. Intermittent reinforcement creates greater resistance to extinction.

Flashcard 86: What is the overjustification effect?

Answer: External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for a task. Paying for previously enjoyed activities decreases enjoyment.

Flashcard 87: Identify the attribution: "I failed because the test was unfair," emphasizing an external cause.

Answer: External attribution (situation-based). Blames circumstances rather than personal factors.