MCAT Psychological Social Foundations Flashcards: 9a Health Medicine Social Epidemiology

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This deck focuses on 9a Health Medicine Social Epidemiology, giving you a quick way to review the definitions, rules, and examples that matter most for MCAT Psychological Social Foundations.

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Work through these flashcards in short sessions. Try to answer each prompt before flipping the card, then revisit any cards you miss until the explanation feels automatic.

Flashcard 1: What is a protective factor in social epidemiology?

Answer: Characteristic associated with decreased probability of disease. Exposure that lowers disease risk below baseline.

Flashcard 2: What is the social gradient in health as described by social epidemiology?

Answer: Health improves stepwise as socioeconomic status increases. Not just poor vs rich; each SES level shows better health.

Flashcard 3: What is the ecological fallacy?

Answer: Inferring individual-level relationships from group-level (aggregate) data. Population patterns may not apply to individuals within groups.

Flashcard 4: What is selection bias in medical or epidemiologic studies?

Answer: Systematic differences in who is selected into the study. Non-random sampling affects study generalizability.

Flashcard 5: What is the definition of a cohort study design?

Answer: Follows exposed and unexposed groups forward to compare outcomes. Prospective design tracks disease development over time.

Flashcard 6: State the formula for point prevalence using cases and population size.

Answer: $\text{Prevalence} = \frac{\text{existing cases}}{\text{total population}}$. Proportion of population with disease at one time point.

Flashcard 7: What is recall bias in epidemiologic research?

Answer: Differential accuracy of remembered past exposures between groups. Cases may remember exposures better than controls.

Flashcard 8: State the formula for specificity using true negatives (TN) and false positives (FP).

Answer: $\text{Specificity} = \frac{\text{TN}}{\text{TN} + \text{FP}}$. Proportion of healthy correctly identified as negative.

Flashcard 9: What is a confounder (confounding variable) in epidemiologic research?

Answer: A third variable related to both exposure and outcome. Can falsely create or hide true associations if not controlled.

Flashcard 10: What is the definition of a confounder in an observational study?

Answer: Third variable related to exposure and outcome that distorts association. Confounders create spurious associations, requiring statistical adjustment to isolate true exposure-outcome relationships.

Flashcard 11: What is the difference between a risk factor and a protective factor?

Answer: Risk increases disease likelihood; protective decreases it. Factors modify disease probability in opposite directions.

Flashcard 12: Which study design follows a disease-free group forward in time to measure incidence?

Answer: Cohort study. Prospective design allows direct incidence calculation.

Flashcard 13: Identify the term for immunity gained when enough people are immune to reduce spread.

Answer: Herd immunity. Protects vulnerable individuals who cannot be vaccinated.

Flashcard 14: State the formula for prevalence in terms of incidence and duration.

Answer: $ \text{Prevalence} \approx \text{Incidence} \times \text{Average duration}$. Shows how new cases accumulate over disease duration.

Flashcard 15: Which level of prevention emphasizes screening and early detection to reduce severity?

Answer: Secondary prevention. Secondary prevention detects asymptomatic or early-stage disease through methods like mammography to improve prognosis.

Flashcard 16: State the formula for prevalence.

Answer: $\text{Prevalence} = \frac{\text{existing cases}}{\text{total population}}$. Point or period measure; affected by both incidence and duration.

Flashcard 17: State the formula for risk (cumulative incidence) over a time interval.

Answer: $\text{Risk} = \frac{\text{new cases}}{\text{population at risk}}$. Assumes closed cohort; gives proportion who develop disease.

Flashcard 18: What is the definition of a health disparity?

Answer: Systematic health differences linked to social disadvantage. Health disparities arise from inequities in access, resources, and opportunities, perpetuating unequal health outcomes.

Flashcard 19: What is the definition of a protective factor in social epidemiology?

Answer: Characteristic associated with decreased probability of disease. Reduces disease risk through various mechanisms.

Flashcard 20: What is the definition of social determinants of health (SDOH)?

Answer: Social and environmental conditions shaping health risks and outcomes. SDOH influence health through factors like education, income, and housing, beyond individual behaviors or genetics.

Flashcard 21: State the formula for cumulative incidence (risk) over a time interval.

Answer: $\text{Incidence}=\frac{\text{new cases}}{\text{population at risk}}$. Cumulative incidence estimates the probability of developing the disease during a specified period among those at risk.

Flashcard 22: What is the definition of selection bias in a study sample?

Answer: Systematic differences from nonrandom participant selection. Occurs when study sample differs from target population.

Flashcard 23: What is the definition of specificity for a diagnostic test?

Answer: Probability the test is negative given disease is absent. High specificity minimizes false positives.

Flashcard 24: Identify the interpretation of $RR=1$ for an exposure-outcome relationship.

Answer: No association between exposure and outcome. Equal risk in both groups indicates no effect.

Flashcard 25: Identify the type of prevention: A vaccine given before any symptoms occur.

Answer: Primary prevention. Prevents disease before it occurs.

Flashcard 26: What is the definition of epidemiology in the context of population health?

Answer: Study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Focuses on patterns and causes across groups, not individuals.

Flashcard 27: Which option best interprets $OR = 1.0$?

Answer: No association between exposure and outcome. Equal odds indicate exposure doesn't affect outcome likelihood.

Flashcard 28: What is the difference between communicable and noncommunicable diseases?

Answer: Communicable are infectious; noncommunicable are not. Transmission potential distinguishes disease categories.

Flashcard 29: Which level of prevention aims to prevent disease onset (before it occurs)?

Answer: Primary prevention. Primary prevention targets root causes like vaccination or lifestyle changes to avoid disease development entirely.

Flashcard 30: Which design is most efficient for rare diseases: cohort or case-control?

Answer: Case-control study. Starts with rare disease cases, then finds controls.

Flashcard 31: State the formula for case fatality rate (CFR).

Answer: $\text{CFR}=\frac{\text{deaths from disease}}{\text{diagnosed cases}}$. Often expressed as percentage; higher means deadlier disease.

Flashcard 32: Which option best interprets $RR = 2.0$?

Answer: Exposed group has twice the risk of the outcome vs unexposed. Risk doubles with exposure compared to without.

Flashcard 33: What is specificity in the context of a diagnostic test?

Answer: Probability a test is negative given disease is absent. True negative rate; correctly identifies healthy individuals.

Flashcard 34: Identify the interpretation of $RR = 1$ for an exposure-outcome relationship.

Answer: No association between exposure and outcome. Equal risks mean exposure doesn't affect outcome.

Flashcard 35: State the formula for odds ratio (OR) using odds in exposed and unexposed groups.

Answer: $OR=\frac{\text{odds in exposed}}{\text{odds in unexposed}}$. Approximates RR when disease is rare.

Flashcard 36: What does the term health disparity mean in social epidemiology?

Answer: Systematic health differences linked to social disadvantage. Often tied to socioeconomic status, race, or geography.

Flashcard 37: State the formula for sensitivity using true positives (TP) and false negatives (FN).

Answer: $\text{Sensitivity} = \frac{\text{TP}}{\text{TP} + \text{FN}}$. Proportion of diseased correctly identified as positive.

Flashcard 38: Identify the study design that measures exposure and outcome at the same time point.

Answer: Cross-sectional study. Provides prevalence data; cannot establish temporal sequence.

Flashcard 39: What is the definition of relative risk (RR) in epidemiology?

Answer: Risk in exposed group divided by risk in unexposed group. Compares disease rates between exposed and unexposed.

Flashcard 40: Which measure is most sensitive to disease duration: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Prevalence. Longer disease duration increases existing cases.

Flashcard 41: What is a randomized controlled trial (RCT) in clinical epidemiology?

Answer: Experiment with random assignment to intervention vs control. Gold standard for causal inference; minimizes confounding.

Flashcard 42: What is the definition of life expectancy in population health?

Answer: Average number of years a person is expected to live. Statistical estimate based on current mortality rates.

Flashcard 43: What is the odds ratio, and which study design most directly estimates it?

Answer: OR compares odds; classically estimated in case-control studies. Approximates RR when disease is rare; retrospective design.

Flashcard 44: What is the placebo effect in medical research?

Answer: Symptom change due to treatment expectations. Psychological response, not pharmacological effect.

Flashcard 45: What study design starts with diseased and non-diseased groups and looks back for exposures?

Answer: Case-control study. Retrospective design efficient for rare diseases.

Flashcard 46: Identify the type of prevention: Physical therapy after a stroke to reduce disability.

Answer: Tertiary prevention. Manages existing disease to prevent complications.

Flashcard 47: What is the definition of incidence in epidemiology?

Answer: New cases in a population during a specified time period. Measures disease occurrence rate, not total cases.

Flashcard 48: Which measure is most sensitive to changes in disease duration: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Prevalence. Longer disease duration increases prevalence but not incidence.

Flashcard 49: Which measure is most useful for identifying risk of developing disease: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Incidence. New cases indicate likelihood of getting disease.

Flashcard 50: What is the fundamental attribution error as it relates to health outcomes?

Answer: Overattributing health outcomes to individual traits while underweighting context. Ignores social determinants by focusing on personal responsibility.

Flashcard 51: What is the formula for odds ratio (OR) using a $2\times^2$ table cells $a,b,c,d$?

Answer: $OR=\frac{ad}{bc}$. Cross-product ratio from contingency table.

Flashcard 52: What is the definition of specificity for a diagnostic test?

Answer: Probability test is negative given disease is absent. True negative rate; ability to rule out disease.

Flashcard 53: What is the definition of a social determinant of health?

Answer: Nonmedical social conditions that influence health outcomes. Include income, education, housing, environment.

Flashcard 54: Which measure is typically higher for chronic diseases: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Prevalence. Chronic diseases accumulate cases over time.

Flashcard 55: What is the prevalence of a disease?

Answer: Total existing cases in a population at a given time. Snapshot of disease burden; includes both new and old cases.

Flashcard 56: What is the definition of morbidity in public health?

Answer: Illness or disease burden in a population. Includes both physical and mental health conditions.

Flashcard 57: What is the formula for incidence proportion (cumulative incidence) over a time interval?

Answer: $\text{Incidence proportion} = \frac{\text{new cases}}{\text{population at risk}}$. Risk of developing disease during the time period.

Flashcard 58: Identify the study design that starts with disease status and looks back for prior exposures.

Answer: Case-control study. Works backward from cases/controls to compare past exposures.

Flashcard 59: What is mortality?

Answer: Death rate in a population. Specifically measures deaths, not illness.

Flashcard 60: What is recall bias, and in which design is it most common?

Answer: Differential memory of exposure; common in case-control studies. Cases remember exposures better than controls.

Flashcard 61: State the formula for incidence proportion (cumulative incidence).

Answer: $\text{Incidence proportion}=\frac{\text{new cases}}{\text{population at risk}}$. Measures new disease occurrence in at-risk population.

Flashcard 62: State the formula for point prevalence using cases and population size.

Answer: $\text{Prevalence} = \frac{\text{existing cases}}{\text{total population}}$. Proportion of population with disease at one time point.

Flashcard 63: What does it imply if relative risk equals $1$ for exposure and disease?

Answer: No association between exposure and outcome. Equal risk in both groups; exposure doesn't affect outcome.

Flashcard 64: Which study design is most efficient for rare diseases: cohort or case-control?

Answer: Case-control. Easier to find enough rare disease cases to compare.

Flashcard 65: What is the definition of a confounder?

Answer: A third variable related to both exposure and outcome. Can create false associations if not controlled.

Flashcard 66: What is the definition of morbidity in public health contexts?

Answer: Illness or disease burden in a population. Measures sickness, not death, in populations.

Flashcard 67: What is the definition of social determinants of health (SDOH)?

Answer: Social and economic conditions shaping health risks and outcomes. Include education, income, housing, and neighborhood factors.

Flashcard 68: What is the definition of a case-control study design?

Answer: Starts with cases and controls, then compares prior exposures. Retrospective design looks backward from disease status.

Flashcard 69: Identify whether causation is supported: $RR=1.0$ for exposure and disease.

Answer: No association (neither increased nor decreased risk). RR=1 means equal risk in both groups.

Flashcard 70: What is the definition of a health disparity in social epidemiology?

Answer: Systematic health differences across socially advantaged vs disadvantaged groups. Avoidable, unfair health differences between groups.

Flashcard 71: Which option best defines the social gradient in health outcomes?

Answer: Health improves as socioeconomic status increases. Linear relationship between social position and health.

Flashcard 72: What is the main feature that distinguishes a cross-sectional study design?

Answer: Exposure and outcome are measured at the same time point. Snapshot approach captures both simultaneously.

Flashcard 73: What is recall bias, and which study type is it most associated with?

Answer: Differential memory of exposure; most common in case-control. Cases may remember exposures better than controls.

Flashcard 74: What is the definition of infant mortality rate (IMR)?

Answer: Deaths before age 1 per live births in a given year. IMR, typically per 1,000 live births, reflects child health and socioeconomic conditions in a population.

Flashcard 75: What is the definition of a pandemic in epidemiology?

Answer: An epidemic spread across multiple countries or continents. Global scale distinguishes from epidemic.

Flashcard 76: What is the health belief model concept of perceived barriers?

Answer: Beliefs about obstacles or costs that reduce likelihood of action. High perceived barriers decrease preventive health behaviors.

Flashcard 77: What is the definition of prevalence in epidemiology?

Answer: Total number of cases in a population at a given time. Includes both new and existing cases (point prevalence).

Flashcard 78: Which measure is most useful for estimating disease burden: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Prevalence. Total cases reflect overall disease impact on resources.

Flashcard 79: What is epidemiology in the context of population health and disease prevention?

Answer: Study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Focuses on patterns and causes at the population level, not individuals.

Flashcard 80: State the formula for sensitivity using a $2\times^2$ table.

Answer: $\text{sensitivity}=\frac{TP}{TP+FN}$. True positives divided by all with disease.

Flashcard 81: What is the definition of risk factor in epidemiology?

Answer: Exposure associated with increased probability of disease. Can be modifiable (smoking) or non-modifiable (age).

Flashcard 82: What is the definition of morbidity?

Answer: Illness or disability in a population. Encompasses all non-fatal health conditions.

Flashcard 83: What is the definition of a randomized controlled trial (RCT)?

Answer: Experimental study with random assignment to intervention vs control. Randomization minimizes confounding bias.

Flashcard 84: What is a risk factor in epidemiology?

Answer: An exposure associated with increased probability of an outcome. Increases disease risk when present.

Flashcard 85: State the formula for sensitivity using $TP$ and $FN$.

Answer: $\text{Sensitivity}=\frac{TP}{TP+FN}$. True positives divided by all who have disease.

Flashcard 86: Which measure is generally most useful for studying rare diseases: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Incidence. New cases easier to identify when disease is uncommon.

Flashcard 87: What is the definition of prevalence (point or period) in epidemiology?

Answer: Total existing cases in a population at a time (or interval). Captures disease burden regardless of when cases began.

Flashcard 88: State the formula for specificity using $TN$ and $FP$.

Answer: $\text{Specificity}=\frac{TN}{TN+FP}$. True negatives divided by all who don't have disease.

Flashcard 89: What is the difference between correlation and causation in health research?

Answer: Correlation is association; causation means one variable produces change. Causation requires direct effect, not just statistical relationship.

Flashcard 90: Identify the correct level of prevention: vaccines given before disease onset.

Answer: Primary prevention. Prevents disease occurrence in healthy populations.

Flashcard 91: State the formula for incidence proportion (cumulative incidence).

Answer: $\text{Incidence proportion} = \frac{\text{new cases}}{\text{population at risk}}$. Measures risk of developing disease over time period.

Flashcard 92: What is the definition of sensitivity for a diagnostic test?

Answer: Probability test is positive given disease is present. True positive rate; ability to detect disease.

Flashcard 93: State the formula for relative risk using event rates in exposed and unexposed groups.

Answer: $RR = \frac{\text{risk}_{\text{exposed}}}{\text{risk}_{\text{unexposed}}}$. Direct comparison of disease probabilities by exposure.

Flashcard 94: What is a risk factor in social epidemiology?

Answer: A characteristic associated with increased disease probability. Identifies factors that increase disease risk but may not cause it.

Flashcard 95: Which measure is most useful for assessing the burden of chronic disease: incidence or prevalence?

Answer: Prevalence. Chronic diseases persist over time, making prevalence a better indicator of ongoing impact than incidence, which tracks new cases.

Flashcard 96: What is the definition of a cohort study?

Answer: Observational study following exposed vs unexposed over time. Prospectively tracks disease development.

Flashcard 97: What is the key feature that distinguishes a case-control study design?

Answer: Groups are defined by outcome; prior exposures are compared. Retrospective design: outcome already occurred.

Flashcard 98: What is the definition of morbidity (as used in public health)?

Answer: Illness or disease burden in a population. Encompasses all non-fatal health conditions.

Flashcard 99: State the formula for incidence proportion (cumulative incidence) over a period.

Answer: $\text{Incidence proportion}=\frac{\text{new cases}}{\text{population at risk}}$. Risk of developing disease during the study period.

Flashcard 100: What is a risk factor in social epidemiology?

Answer: Characteristic associated with increased probability of disease. Exposure that raises disease risk above baseline.