Types of Cells and Tissues - AP Biology

Sodium ions are positively charged (Na+) and enter the neuron starting at the axon hillock, which is where the axon and cell body come together. An influx of positively charged ions will cause the charge of the cell to increase.

When a neuron reaches threshold, it 'fires' an action potential down the axon using charge gradient to drive the propagation towards the axon terminal, where neurotransmitters will be released to relay the signal to the next cell.

Potassium ions are also positively charged (K+), but follow a gradient that promotes efflux over influx due to the equilibrium established by the sodium-potassium pump. As such, potassium flows out of a cells following depolarization, and actually results in the hyperpolarization observed immediately following an action potential.

It is the influx of calcium ions into the axon terminal that causes vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters held within the vesicles into the synapse.

Potassium ion (K+) influx happens during the refractory period, when the neuron returns to its membrane potential via action of the sodium-potassium pump. Potassium influx requires active transport. Sodium ion (Na+) influx is most closely linked with action potential propagation down the axon. It eventually triggers the calcium influx, but is not directly linked to vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release.

Chloride (Cl-) influx occurs when the neuron receives inhibitory signals, causing the cell to be hyperpolarized and not fire an action potential.

The PNS is the part of the nervous system that is comprised of all the nerves located outside of the central nervous system. The PNS nerves are not protected by bone; therefore, they are susceptible to toxins and injury. The PNS can be further divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

The refractory period is caused by two processes: the secondary gate closing the voltage-gated sodium channel to prevent sodium influx and the hyperpolarization of the neuron caused by potassium ion efflux.

The period of potassium efflux is closely linked to action by the sodium-potassium pump, which is responsible for importing potassium and ejecting sodium from the cell. During the refractory period, then, sodium is exiting the cell and potassium is entering. The cell is also It also removing the calcium ions that entered the axon terminal, inducing the neurotransmitter release, to prepare for further neurotransmitter release. This prepares it to fire another action potential once the refractory period is over.

The influx of sodium ions is linked to the propagation of action potentials, and would not occur during the refractory period due to the secondary gate on the voltage-gated sodium channel.

The Corpus callosum resides beneath the cortex in the brain and bridges the gap between the left and right cerebral hemispheres. It is involved in the transfer of information from these hemispheres, helping to integrate and coordinate bilateral responses.

The cerebrum is located in the cortex and is involved in higher brain function, such as thought and processing. The hypothalamus is involved in survival processes, such as the instinct to eat, drink, or reproduce. The cerebellum coordinates balance and fine-tuned movement. Purkinje cells are found in the cerebellum; Purkinje fibers are found in the heart.

Neuron function is highly dependent on ion concentrations. Sodium is required for depolarization, potassium for hyperpolarization and repolarization, and calcium is responsible for initiating neurotransmitter release. Vesicles of neurotransmitter are stored in the terminal end of the axon, opposite from the end with the axon hillock and cell body. When voltage-gated calcium channels open, the binding of calcium to these vesicles causes them to exocytose the neurotransmitter.

Myelin is the fatty substance that wraps around axons to create nodes of Ranvier. These nodes allow the depolarization signal to jump along the axon, rather than traveling fluidly. This method, known as saltatory conduction, allows the action potential to travel faster. Degeneration of myelin is associated with numerous neurological disorders.

It is true that the axon of one neuron transmits information to the dendrite(s) of another, but this contact is not direct. Neurons are separated by synapses, which are small gaps that neurotransmitters must cross in order to move from their original location to a new dendrite. The two neurons do not physically touch.

Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the dendrites, which causes an electrical signal to be sent to the cell body. The cell body then transfers this signal to the axon hillock before an action potential is sent down the axon. The axon terminates at the synaptic cleft, where it releases neurotransmitters to the dendrites of the next neuron.

Depolarization results from the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels during the initiation of an action potential. Sodium has an electrochemical gradient that causes it to enter the cell when the channels open, resulting in a net flow of positive ions into the cell that increases the membrane potential. This increase is known as depolarization.

Potassium follows a gradient opposite to sodium. When voltage-gated potassium channels open, ions flow out of the cell and cause hyperpolarization.

Glial cells are important in maintaining nervous system homeostasis. The major functions of glial cells include insulating neurons, holding them in place, and supplying them with nutrients and oxygen. Glial cells also degrade pathogens and dead neurons.

Rods and cones are contained in the human retina, but they differ in shape and function.

The functional difference between the two is that rods are more sensitive to light, but do not distinguish colors. Comparatively, cones are able to sense color and are less sensitive to distinctions fo light and dark. There are three different types of cone photoreceptors that have different sensitivity across the visible spectrum, with optimal responses to red, blue and green light, respectively.

Both types of receptors use rhodopsin as the visual pigment that is activated when exposed to light. This initiates a signaling cascade that causes cellular depolarization through sodium ion channels and the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate by bipolar neuron cells to further transmit the visual signal.

The signaling cascade in response to light in the human eye is caused by two types of photoreceptors present in the retina—rods and cones. Rods provide dark and light vision (black and white) and cones are capable of discerning color along the visible spectrum.

Rhodopsin is the visual pigment in photoreceptors and is made up of a light-absorbing vitamin-like molecule (retinal) that is bound to a cell membrane protein called opsin. The absorbtion of light by rhodopsin results in chemical bond shifting and a change in the molecule's shape. This causes rhodopsin to activate. The active rhodopsin initiates a G-protein cascade that causes sodium channels on the receptor's cell membrane to close. This prevents sodium ions from entering the cell, resulting in a build-up of ions in the extracellular space in comparison to the cell interior. The membrane potential is directly related to this difference in concentration; a higher concentration of positive ions outside the cell will result in hyperpolarization.

In response to being in a hyperpolarized state, the photoreceptor cell will stop its release of the neurotransmitter glutamate across the cell synapse with retinal neurons. Glutamate is an inhibitory neurotransmitter; halting the release of glutamate will leave the neurons capable of stimulation by visual signals.

Neurons can be unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar, depending on how many projections are coming off of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are found in the retina and inner ear, and have a single dendritic extension as well as a single axonal extension. Most neurons are multipolar; they have numerous dendrites and a single axon.

During the initial phase of an action potential, voltage-gated sodium channels open and allow sodium ions to enter the cell. This causes the membrane potential to rise to a positive value, resulting in depolarization.

Next, voltage-gated potassium channels open and potassium ions rush out of the cell. This reduces the membrane potential, resulting in repolarization as the potential becomes negative.

As more and more potassium exits the cell, the membrane potential declines below the resting potential, resulting in the hyperpolarized state. The sodium-potassium pump then functions to import potassium ions and export sodium ions to reestablish the resting membrane potential.

The relative refractory period is a time frame near the end of an action potential where another action potential can be generated only if a larger than normal stimulus is encountered by the neural cell. The relative refractory period takes place during the hyperpolarization of the cell. Since the membrane potential during hyperpolarization is more negative than the resting potential, it requires a much larger stimulus in order to reach threshold.

Nervous tissue is responsible for the transmission of electrical impulses throughout the human body. This transmission occurs in nerve cells called neurons. It regulates sensory input, muscle control, homeostasis, and mental activity.

The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord. It receives and regulates information from within the body.

Neuron cells are functional units of nervous tissue that transmit electrical signals. Neurons typically are composed of a soma, dendrites, and an axon. The soma is the body of the cell, the dendrites are branched projections that receive signals, and the axon conducts signals away from the cell body.

Axons are the parts of neurons that transmit electrical signals away from the cell body and to other neurons. The axon branches off of the soma and is long with a constant radius. Parts of the axon are myelinated, meaning that it is insulated to allow for salutatory conduction. Gaps in insulation are referred nodes of Ranvier.

In neurons and many other cells, electrical signal transmission requires action potential. Action potential can be defined as the rapid rise and fall of membrane potential that allows for signal propagation. In the case of neurons, reaching action potential allows the electrical signal to travel down to axon, which permits signal transduction.