The pyruvate decarboxylation reaction is pyruvate+ CoA-SH+ NAD+ -> NADH+ CO2+ acetyl CoA.

The law of independent assortment states that inheritance of one gene does not influence inheritance of another gene. Thus, inheritance of seed color does not affect the inheritance of seed shape.

Chromatin serves as a scaffold for DNA and helps regulate gene activity. Chromatin can be condensed, as euchromatin, or loosely packed, as heterochromatin. The compactness of chromatin determines its level of activity. When it is loosely packed, it can be acted upon by DNA replication and/or transcription enzymes, and those genes may be expressed. Centromeres hold sister chromatids together.

Sister chromatids are two identical copies of the same chromosome. They are attached to each other at a region called the centromere. Homologous chromosomes are not identical. Rather, they are chromosomes that look alike, and have the same genes at the same loci, but not necessarily the same versions of those genes. For example, we all have two copies of chromosome number 1. Assume eye color is coded on this chromosome. One copy may have the brown allele, while the other copy might have the green allele. Both chromosomes have loci that code for eye color, but they are not identical since one came from each parent.

The pyruvate decarboxylation reaction is pyruvate+ CoA-SH+ NAD+ -> NADH+ CO2+ acetyl CoA.

One way to divide prokaryotes is into aerobes and anaerobes. Aerobes are organisms that can survive and grow in the presence of oxygen while anaerobes did not require oxygen for survival and growth. All aerobes can produce ATP with or without oxygen (though they may need oxygen for survival. However some anaerobes are harmed by the presence of oxygen (obligate anaerobes). These anaerobes can produce ATP through glycolysis or anaerobic respiration, where another molecule besides oxygen is used as the final electron acceptor for the electron transport chain.

Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down down into pyruvate. It occurs in the cytosol. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is exported to the mitochondria where it is further oxidized. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid (fermentation) in the cytoplasm.

In cellular respiration, glucose first undergoes glycolysis and is broken down into two pyruvate molecules. As the pyruvate passes through the citric acid cycle, three molecules of are produced. The radioactive oxygen molecules would be found in the .

is formed when electrons removed from glucose are used to reduce . is produced by the phosphorylation of . The oxygen in enters the mitochondrion as gaseous molecular oxygen from the atmosphere, not from glucose. Finally, is reduced to water in cellular respiration and serves as a reactant, rather than a product, in cell metabolism.

The net production of ATP is 2.

This is because for glycolysis to occur, 2 ATP must be used. Glycolysis goes on to produce 4 ATP. The loss of 2 ATP and the gain of 4 ATP results in a total net gain of 2 ATP molecules. Note that the ATP produced during glycolysis are via substrate level phosphorylation.

The law of independent assortment states that inheritance of one gene does not influence inheritance of another gene. Thus, inheritance of seed color does not affect the inheritance of seed shape.