Calvin differed from Luther and the majority of the rest of the major Protestant reformers because he advocated for the inclusion of the church in the affairs of the state. Calvin believed that the church should be the primary factor in the makeup and decisions of a secular government. As Calvinism spread, this encouraged the rise of theocratic governments in England, Switzerland, and even the New World.

The English Civil War (1642 - 1651) was fought between the royalists and parliamentarians over the nature of English government. The royalists were led by King Charles I and the parliamentarians were led by Oliver Cromwell.

The forces of Charles I were defeated, and he was tried and found guilty of high treason. He was then beheaded in 1649.

In 1345 Petrarch discovered the lost collection Cicero’s letters. Cicero was considered one of the greatest minds of Rome and was a very influential writer and politician who lived during the 1st century BC. This discovery of these letters is sometimes crediting for triggering the Renaissance. Petrarch was an Italian scholar and is credited as the founder of humanism. He is also said to have coined the phrase “dark ages” in referring to the century before his lifetime.

The Constitution established the American government as we now know it, so that would not be the best answer. The Articles of Confederation established the first, short-lived U.S. government, so that would not be the best answer. The Edict of Milan was the Roman decree that established tolerance for Christianity, so that would not be a good answer. The Mandate of Heaven was the idea used by Chinese historians to justify the rise and fall of dynasties, so that too would not be a good choice. Lastly, the Magna Carta established the first constitutional monarchy in England, so that would be the correct answer.

The current country of Spain was divided into two primary kingdoms, Aragon and Castile, each led by a separate family. As was common during this time, a marriage was planned to unify the two kingdoms and make each more powerful than before. The two were married in 1469 when they were both still heirs to their respective thrones. After the marriage each inherited their own throne shortly after and the kingdoms were brought together. Of course this marriage did not completely unify the kingdoms and each continued to be ruled much as it had before, with its own officials, customs, and laws. This marriage did lead to the official unification later on and it made Ferdinand and Isabella two of the most powerful monarchs in Europe, where they were known for wielding their power to defend the Catholic faith.

St. Petersburg was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great. The name was changed in 1914 to Petrograd, again in 1924 to Leningrad, and finally in 1991 back to St. Petersburg.

Edmund Burke wrote his Reflections on the Revolution in France in 1790. In it, Burke condemns the chaos and violence of the French Revolution and argues in favor of the importance of conservatism and the preservation of established institutions of authority. The text has been widely employed in the centuries after it was written to argue in favor of maintaining the status quo and preventing movements towards republicanism, liberalism, and later, socialism.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) is one of the most relatively destructive wars in European history. It began as a religious war, like many others in this time period, between Catholics and Protestants, but eventually expanded to include all the major nations of Western and Central Europe. France entered the war in 1635 to try and prevent the growth of Hapsburg dominance over the Germanic states and Central Europe; in this sense, France was quite successful.

Giovanni de Medici was a merchant banker in Florence who made his fortune by ignoring the Catholic Church’s prohibition of lending money for interest. The Medici family became immensely wealthy and was vitally important for encouraging the Italian Renaissance by providing the necessary funds to patronize notable artists. Giovanni’s son and grandson, Cosimo de Medici and Lorenzo the Magnificent, became famous rulers of Florence and patrons of the arts.

The idea of Enlightened Despotism is that an autocratic ruler will make the necessary enlightened reforms—fostering education, social equality, and the growth of the economy—because doing so is in the best interest of their states. Many Enlightenment thinkers, like Voltaire and Diderot, supported Enlightened Despots because they believed the common people were incapable of self-rule and that Enlightened Despotism was the only way to reliably implement reform.