Common Cell Structures - Biology

Ribosomal subunits and rRNA are both created in the nucleolus in order to create functional ribosomes. The nucleolus is a specialized structure for ribosome production and is found within the nucleus.

Mitochondria are responsible for generating cellular energy. The rough endoplasmic reticulum helps modify proteins. The cytoplasm is the aqueous matrix found within the cell.

Mitochondrial DNA is much smaller and simpler than nuclear DNA, meaning it does not need histones or introns. Mitochondrial DNA is also circular, like bacterial DNA, rather than linear like nuclear DNA. As the ovum is the only contributor of mitochondria to an offspring, all mDNA must therefore be inherited from the mother.

The mitochondria is responsible for making the energy for the cell by cellular respiration. It does this by taking the major breakdown products of glucose (pyruvate and NADH) and converting them into ATP by the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain. This is an oxygen-dependent process.

Lysosomes are specialized vesicles that bud off of the Golgi apparatus and house digestive enzymes within the cell. Lysosomes have only one outer membrane, made of a phospholipid bilayer, similar to the plasma membrane surrounding the cell.

In contrast, the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts all have two outer membranes. Each of these is made of a lipid bilayer, for a total of four layers of phospholipids around these structures.

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes which break down all four types of macromolecules. The mitochondria is responsible for synthesis of the majority of the cell's energy in the form of ATP. The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and provides a "freeway" for transporting substances within the cell. Flagella are proteinaceous structures that aid in cell motility.

Ribosomes are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. Their primary function is to bind mRNA and tRNA to build proteins. Ribosomes are the fundamental structure necessary for translation and protein formation.

The nucleus houses the DNA of the cell, the cytoskeleton and specialized proteins transport compounds within the cell, and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum breaks down toxic substances, such as alcohol.

A cell wall is a tough, and rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside of the plasma membrane in plants, some fungi, and some protists. The cell wall provides these cells with structural support and protection. It also prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell. Animal cells lack a cell wall, and only have a plasma membrane.

Hydrogen peroxide is an example of a reactive oxygen species, made as a byproduct of metabolism. Peroxisomes use the enzyme catalase to catalyze the following reaction: . Hydrogen peroxide can be toxic to a cell if it builds up, thus converting it to harmless substances like water and oxygen gas is an important metabolic function of peroxisomes. Also, note that the breakdown of fatty acids (beta oxidation) occurs in both peroxisomes and mitochondria. Proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids are broken down by the lysosome.

The plant central vacuole is a membrane bound organelle containing water and other enzymes. The central vacuole functions as a storage space in the center of the plant cell, and is responsible for many functions including digestion, isolating harmful materials, maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure (turgor), storage of water and small molecules, cell rigidity, and more. Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria, where:

The fluid-mosaic model for the cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipids with embedded proteins. The proteins do active transport in pumping molecules across the membrane. The phosphates are on the outside and the lipid chains are on the inside of the membrane.

The cell wall provides support and protection for the cell. Most are made from carbohydrate and protein. They are not made of phospholipids or lipids.

The nucleus is the site of DNA replication, and transcription, which is the process by which DNA is converted to RNA. Enzymes are a class of proteins. All protein synthesis occurs in the ribosomes, some of which are on the endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), and some are floating in the cytoplasm. Detoxification of harmful substances is carried out by the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Nuclear pores are complex structures made up of proteins which allow movement of certain molecules into and out of the nucleus. Flagella are long tail-like projections found on some cells that function in cell motility. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes on it, which are the sites of protein synthesis. Lysosomes are organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes used to recycle/destroy macromolecules.

Prokaryotes have a single circular DNA molecule, and eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes. The four nucleotides for DNA are in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

The tail, terminal disc, and most mitochondria are found near the rear of the sperm cell (in order to facilitate movement). The acrosome is a cap-like organelle (derived from the Golgi apparatus) that develops over the anterior half of the head in the sperm cells of many animals. The acrosome contains digestive enzymes which allows the break down of the outer membrane of the ovum (zona pellucida). In short, the acrosome is located at the head of the sperm cell and allows penetration of the egg cell.

Lysosomes serve as the "clean-up" crew in the cell, digesting excess proteins and lipids in the cell and breaking them down into smaller molecules. Lysosomes do not produce messenger RNA, which is produced in transcription byDNA. Ribosomes synthesize proteins, and the Golgi Apparatus sorts and ships proteins.

The flagellum (plural flagella) is the whip-like structure on the end of a human sperm cell that propels it forward. Cilia are the hair-like structures on membranes on cells that aid in movement. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the organelle involved in synthesizing lipids and detoxifying substances. Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance throughout the cell.

The endomembrane system is a collection of membranes making up a cell that are connected either physically or via transport using vesicles. One of its main functions is to package and "ship" things made in the cell to other places in the organism, such as hormones like insulin. In order to do this, different organelles with different functions are necessary, just like there are different people with different jobs who make sure a package is mailed to the proper place.

The mitochondria are the site for aerobic respiration in the cell. Both the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are found in the mitochondria, while glycolysis (anaerobic metabolism) takes place in the cytoplasm. The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, where pyruvate is used to generate NADH and FADH2. These molecules are then taken to the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the electron transport chain is located. The electron transport chain pushes protons into the intermembrane space, creating the proton gradient that fuels ATP synthesis.

Chloroplasts are an organelle that harbors large amounts of the green pigment chlorophyll. The chloroplast converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy through a process called photosynthesis. This takes place inside a system of membranous sacs called thylakoids within the chloroplast.

Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria all produce energy via photosynthesis. Plants and algae use chloroplasts, but cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and do not contain membrane-bound organelles. Cyanobacteria use internal thylakoid structures to perform photosynthesis.

Plasmids are circular pieces of DNA found in prokaryotes, and are not linked to photosynthesis. Guard cells are responsible for opening and closing stomata on the surface of plant leaves, and are also not involved in photosynthesis.