Genetics, DNA, and Molecular Biology - GRE Subject Test: Biology
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Which of the following accurately describes the promoter?
Which of the following accurately describes the promoter?
The promoter is a specific segment of DNA that signals the starting point of transcription. RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter and proceeds to create the mRNA primary transcript.
DNA polymerase binds to the RNA primer to begin DNA replication. Ribosomes bind to the 5' cap on eukaryotic mRNA.
The promoter is a specific segment of DNA that signals the starting point of transcription. RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter and proceeds to create the mRNA primary transcript.
DNA polymerase binds to the RNA primer to begin DNA replication. Ribosomes bind to the 5' cap on eukaryotic mRNA.
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Which of the following enzymes is responsible for catalyzing the formation of phosphodiester bonds in single- and double-stranded DNA breaks?
Which of the following enzymes is responsible for catalyzing the formation of phosphodiester bonds in single- and double-stranded DNA breaks?
DNA ligase catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the elements of the DNA backbone. DNA polymerases function in replication of DNA, whereas exonucleases and endonucleases break apart DNA strands by disrupting phosphodiester bonds.
DNA ligase catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the elements of the DNA backbone. DNA polymerases function in replication of DNA, whereas exonucleases and endonucleases break apart DNA strands by disrupting phosphodiester bonds.
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Several enzymes are required for DNA replication. What is the class of enzymes that is required for unwinding the DNA at the replication fork?
Several enzymes are required for DNA replication. What is the class of enzymes that is required for unwinding the DNA at the replication fork?
DNA helicases use ATP to break the hydrogen bonds that separate complementary strands of DNA. During DNA replication, DNA helicases move along the DNA backbone with the replication fork and are responsble for unwinding the DNA at the fork.
DNA helicases use ATP to break the hydrogen bonds that separate complementary strands of DNA. During DNA replication, DNA helicases move along the DNA backbone with the replication fork and are responsble for unwinding the DNA at the fork.
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Colorblindness is a recessive sex-linked disease that is caused by a defective gene on the X-chromosome. If a mother who is a carrier for the trait mates with a normal sighted male, what percentage of their daughters will have the disease?
Colorblindness is a recessive sex-linked disease that is caused by a defective gene on the X-chromosome. If a mother who is a carrier for the trait mates with a normal sighted male, what percentage of their daughters will have the disease?
Since colorblindness is a recessive disease, all copies of the X-chromosome must have the diseased allele in order for the person to be colorblind. Daughters have two copies of the X-chromosome: one from the mother and the other from the father. Males only have one copy of the X-chromosome (from the mother) and a Y-chromosome from the father.
Since we know that the father has normal vision, he does NOT carry the colorblind allele. Since the daughters for this couple can only potentially receive one colorblind allele (from the mother), all of their daughters will have normal vision. This means that there is a zero percent chance for colorblindness in their daughters.
The cross would look like this, taking Xb as the colorblind allele:
Parents: XXb x XY
Offspring: XX or XXb (normal daughters), XY (normal son), YXb (colorblind son)
The chance of a colorblind daughter will be zero, but the chance of a colorblind son will be 50%.
Since colorblindness is a recessive disease, all copies of the X-chromosome must have the diseased allele in order for the person to be colorblind. Daughters have two copies of the X-chromosome: one from the mother and the other from the father. Males only have one copy of the X-chromosome (from the mother) and a Y-chromosome from the father.
Since we know that the father has normal vision, he does NOT carry the colorblind allele. Since the daughters for this couple can only potentially receive one colorblind allele (from the mother), all of their daughters will have normal vision. This means that there is a zero percent chance for colorblindness in their daughters.
The cross would look like this, taking Xb as the colorblind allele:
Parents: XXb x XY
Offspring: XX or XXb (normal daughters), XY (normal son), YXb (colorblind son)
The chance of a colorblind daughter will be zero, but the chance of a colorblind son will be 50%.
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Hemophilia A is a blood clotting disorder that is usually inherited as an X-linked recessive trait. If a woman who does not have hemophilia A has a daughter with a man who does not have hemophilia A, what is the probability that the daughter will have hemophilia A if the maternal grandfather did have hemophilia A?
Hemophilia A is a blood clotting disorder that is usually inherited as an X-linked recessive trait. If a woman who does not have hemophilia A has a daughter with a man who does not have hemophilia A, what is the probability that the daughter will have hemophilia A if the maternal grandfather did have hemophilia A?
X-linked recessive inheritance dictates that expression of themutant phenotype will only occur if the individual is homozygous for the mutation on the X-chromosomes. Therefore, a female must have inherited two mutant X-chromosomes to have hemophilia A, while a male only requires one mutant X-chromosome to have the disorder. By virtue of the father not having hemophilia A, we know the daughter is inheriting at least one wild-type X-chromosome, and therefore there is zero chance she will be homozygous and have hemophilia A.
X-linked recessive inheritance dictates that expression of themutant phenotype will only occur if the individual is homozygous for the mutation on the X-chromosomes. Therefore, a female must have inherited two mutant X-chromosomes to have hemophilia A, while a male only requires one mutant X-chromosome to have the disorder. By virtue of the father not having hemophilia A, we know the daughter is inheriting at least one wild-type X-chromosome, and therefore there is zero chance she will be homozygous and have hemophilia A.
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Two parents are heterozygous for an allele that determines hair color for this species. These parents have offspring with the following genotypic ratios:
50% Bb, 25% BB, 25% bb
The B allele produces black hair, and the b allele produces white hair. However, the phenotypic expression of this gene's traits do not follow Mendelian patterns. If allele B exhibits incomplete dominance, which of the following is true for the offspring?
Two parents are heterozygous for an allele that determines hair color for this species. These parents have offspring with the following genotypic ratios:
50% Bb, 25% BB, 25% bb
The B allele produces black hair, and the b allele produces white hair. However, the phenotypic expression of this gene's traits do not follow Mendelian patterns. If allele B exhibits incomplete dominance, which of the following is true for the offspring?
Incomplete dominance indicates that there is no dominant allele. In these cases, the phenotype associated with inheriting one copy of each allele (the heterozygotes, Bb) is often a blending of the phenotypes associated with homozygosity of each allele. As such, a genotype of BB will result in black hair, bb will produce white hair, and Bb will result in grey hair.
The incorrect answers are too limited in scope to be cases of incomplete dominance. The correct answer identifies that there will be three unique phenotypes.
Incomplete dominance indicates that there is no dominant allele. In these cases, the phenotype associated with inheriting one copy of each allele (the heterozygotes, Bb) is often a blending of the phenotypes associated with homozygosity of each allele. As such, a genotype of BB will result in black hair, bb will produce white hair, and Bb will result in grey hair.
The incorrect answers are too limited in scope to be cases of incomplete dominance. The correct answer identifies that there will be three unique phenotypes.
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Which of the following statements about autosomal-dominant disorders is false?
Which of the following statements about autosomal-dominant disorders is false?
Because the disorder is autosomal dominant, the statement "If an individual does not have the disorder, they can still pass on the mutant gene if one of their parents has the disorder" must be false.
If the indivdual in question does not have the disorder, that means they did not inherit ANY copies of the mutant gene, and therefore cannot pass it on.
Because the disorder is autosomal dominant, the statement "If an individual does not have the disorder, they can still pass on the mutant gene if one of their parents has the disorder" must be false.
If the indivdual in question does not have the disorder, that means they did not inherit ANY copies of the mutant gene, and therefore cannot pass it on.
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Which of the following are not observed when performing a karyotype?
Which of the following are not observed when performing a karyotype?
Karyotypes describe whole chromosome structure, including the number and size of chromosomes, position of centromeres, distribution of heterochromatin versus euchromatin, and the presence of satellite chromosomes that are found near the centromeres. However, a karyotype is unable to label specific gene sequences and determine their chromosomal locations. Most karyotypes depict chromosomes of a cell in metaphase.
Karyotypes describe whole chromosome structure, including the number and size of chromosomes, position of centromeres, distribution of heterochromatin versus euchromatin, and the presence of satellite chromosomes that are found near the centromeres. However, a karyotype is unable to label specific gene sequences and determine their chromosomal locations. Most karyotypes depict chromosomes of a cell in metaphase.
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Which of the following inheritance patterns only requires a single copy of a mutant allele for presentation of a specific gene disorder?
Which of the following inheritance patterns only requires a single copy of a mutant allele for presentation of a specific gene disorder?
For autosomal dominant disorders, the individual only needs to inherent a single copy of a mutated allele to then show symptoms of that disorder. If it were recessive, both alleles would have to be mutant. X-linked recessive is incompletely correct for males since they only have one X-chromosome, and incorrect for females since 2 copies of the X-chromosome are needed, and thus 2 copies of the allele. Complex inheritance describes situations beyond a single gene, and Mendelian inheritance is not a specific method of inheritance. Note that Y-linked disorders are passed from father to son, and since males only have one copy of the Y-chromosome, if there is a genetic mutation on the Y-chromosome, the individual will be affected.
For autosomal dominant disorders, the individual only needs to inherent a single copy of a mutated allele to then show symptoms of that disorder. If it were recessive, both alleles would have to be mutant. X-linked recessive is incompletely correct for males since they only have one X-chromosome, and incorrect for females since 2 copies of the X-chromosome are needed, and thus 2 copies of the allele. Complex inheritance describes situations beyond a single gene, and Mendelian inheritance is not a specific method of inheritance. Note that Y-linked disorders are passed from father to son, and since males only have one copy of the Y-chromosome, if there is a genetic mutation on the Y-chromosome, the individual will be affected.
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A scientist is working with a breed of dog and has noticed that two traits, ear length and color, behave in normal dominant-recessive hierarchies. Long ears (A) are dominant to short ears (a) and black coloration (B) is dominant to yellow coloration (b). If he breeds a long eared, black dog (AaBb) with a short eared yellow dog (aabb), what would be the resulting phenotypic ratios of the offspring?
A scientist is working with a breed of dog and has noticed that two traits, ear length and color, behave in normal dominant-recessive hierarchies. Long ears (A) are dominant to short ears (a) and black coloration (B) is dominant to yellow coloration (b). If he breeds a long eared, black dog (AaBb) with a short eared yellow dog (aabb), what would be the resulting phenotypic ratios of the offspring?
This question can be solved by making a punnett square. The genotypes are given: AaBb x aabb.
The potential gametes the AaBb dog can produce are AB, Ab, aB, and ab. The aabb dog can only produce one gamete: ab.
Putting these gametes in our punnett square we can see that we end up with the following potential offspring: AaBb, Aabb, aaBb, and a_a_bb.
Each of these possible offspring carries a different phenotype. AaBb will carry both dominant traits and be black with long ears. Aabb will be yellow with long ears_._ aaBb will be black with short ears. Finally, aabb will be yellow with short ears. Each of these gametes is produced in the same ratio, making these phenotypes exist in a 1:1:1:1 probability.
This question can be solved by making a punnett square. The genotypes are given: AaBb x aabb.
The potential gametes the AaBb dog can produce are AB, Ab, aB, and ab. The aabb dog can only produce one gamete: ab.
Putting these gametes in our punnett square we can see that we end up with the following potential offspring: AaBb, Aabb, aaBb, and a_a_bb.
Each of these possible offspring carries a different phenotype. AaBb will carry both dominant traits and be black with long ears. Aabb will be yellow with long ears_._ aaBb will be black with short ears. Finally, aabb will be yellow with short ears. Each of these gametes is produced in the same ratio, making these phenotypes exist in a 1:1:1:1 probability.
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Which of the following choices represents information contained in a punnett square?
I. Potential genotype ratios of offspring
II. Possible gametes produced by parent generation
III. Allele frequencies of the population
Which of the following choices represents information contained in a punnett square?
I. Potential genotype ratios of offspring
II. Possible gametes produced by parent generation
III. Allele frequencies of the population
Punnett squares give information about the potential genotype ratios of offspring possible from the cross of two members of the parental generation. The letters represent alleles of various genes, but do not give any information about the allele frequencies. To get information about the allele frequencies, more information about the size and make-up of the population would be needed. The actual cross is between potential gametes produced by the parental generation. Each square shows the potential offspring from these potential gametes.
Punnett squares give information about the potential genotype ratios of offspring possible from the cross of two members of the parental generation. The letters represent alleles of various genes, but do not give any information about the allele frequencies. To get information about the allele frequencies, more information about the size and make-up of the population would be needed. The actual cross is between potential gametes produced by the parental generation. Each square shows the potential offspring from these potential gametes.
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Peas in pea plants can be either yellow or green, with yellow being the dominant color. The peas can also be smooth or wrinkled, with smooth being the dominant shape. Suppose that a pea plant that is heterozygous for both traits is self crossed.
What proportion of the next generation will have smooth, green peas?
Peas in pea plants can be either yellow or green, with yellow being the dominant color. The peas can also be smooth or wrinkled, with smooth being the dominant shape. Suppose that a pea plant that is heterozygous for both traits is self crossed.
What proportion of the next generation will have smooth, green peas?
The shortcut for this problem involves the standard phenotypic ratios for a dihybrid cross. Nine offspring will show both dominant traits. Three will show one dominant trait and the other recessive trait. Three will show the inverse phenotypes, with the opposite dominant trait and recessive trait combination. One offspring will show both recessive traits. Based on these ratios, we can see that three of the sixteen offspring will show the dominant smooth trait and the recessive green phenotype.
We can also solve by using a dihybrid punnett square. The cross described will be AaBb x AaBb, in which the A alleles signify color and the B alleles signify shape.
Consider the color of the peas. In order to have green peas, two recessive alleles must combine in the next generation. According to a punnett square where both sides are heterozygous for the trait, there is only a one in four chance of this taking place. Since smooth is the dominant shape for the peas, a punnett square where each side is heterozygous shows a three in four chance that pea plants will have this shape. By multiplying these two probabilities, we determine that three out of sixteen pea plants will have smooth, green peas.
The shortcut for this problem involves the standard phenotypic ratios for a dihybrid cross. Nine offspring will show both dominant traits. Three will show one dominant trait and the other recessive trait. Three will show the inverse phenotypes, with the opposite dominant trait and recessive trait combination. One offspring will show both recessive traits. Based on these ratios, we can see that three of the sixteen offspring will show the dominant smooth trait and the recessive green phenotype.
We can also solve by using a dihybrid punnett square. The cross described will be AaBb x AaBb, in which the A alleles signify color and the B alleles signify shape.
Consider the color of the peas. In order to have green peas, two recessive alleles must combine in the next generation. According to a punnett square where both sides are heterozygous for the trait, there is only a one in four chance of this taking place. Since smooth is the dominant shape for the peas, a punnett square where each side is heterozygous shows a three in four chance that pea plants will have this shape. By multiplying these two probabilities, we determine that three out of sixteen pea plants will have smooth, green peas.
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What is the structure in prokaryotic cells that often holds antibiotic resistance genes?
What is the structure in prokaryotic cells that often holds antibiotic resistance genes?
Antibiotic resistance genes are often found on plasmids, which are small DNA molecules which are easily transfered to other prokaryotic cells.
Antibiotic resistance genes are often found on plasmids, which are small DNA molecules which are easily transfered to other prokaryotic cells.
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What is the name of the globular protein around which DNA is wrapped in a chromosome?
What is the name of the globular protein around which DNA is wrapped in a chromosome?
Chromosomes have a great deal of protein involved in their structure so that DNA can be tightly coiled in order to fit into the nucleus. At the smallest level of organization, the DNA wraps itself around small globular proteins called histones. Complexes of histones and DNA form nucleosomes, which appear as "beads" on the DNA strand.
Chromatin refers to the decondensed DNA that has not formed separate chromosomes. The nucleolus is a nuclear structure where ribosomal subunits are synthesized.
Chromosomes have a great deal of protein involved in their structure so that DNA can be tightly coiled in order to fit into the nucleus. At the smallest level of organization, the DNA wraps itself around small globular proteins called histones. Complexes of histones and DNA form nucleosomes, which appear as "beads" on the DNA strand.
Chromatin refers to the decondensed DNA that has not formed separate chromosomes. The nucleolus is a nuclear structure where ribosomal subunits are synthesized.
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In a small village, a doctor over-prescribed Ciprofloxin (an antiobiotic) to his patients. The result was that the majority of his patients had developed a new strain of bacteria that had become resistant to Ciprofloxin.
What is a possible route that may have caused these bacteria to become antibiotic resistant?
In a small village, a doctor over-prescribed Ciprofloxin (an antiobiotic) to his patients. The result was that the majority of his patients had developed a new strain of bacteria that had become resistant to Ciprofloxin.
What is a possible route that may have caused these bacteria to become antibiotic resistant?
Antibiotic resistant genes are commonly transferred through plasmids. Plasmids are small, circular, extra-chromosomal pieces of DNA that contain supplemental genes, which can be passed from bacteria to bacteria.
Antibiotic resistant genes are commonly transferred through plasmids. Plasmids are small, circular, extra-chromosomal pieces of DNA that contain supplemental genes, which can be passed from bacteria to bacteria.
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Which of these processes is the means by which a bacterium can directly uptake and incorporate foreign DNA from the environment into its genome?
Which of these processes is the means by which a bacterium can directly uptake and incorporate foreign DNA from the environment into its genome?
Transformation is defined as the process by which bacteria can incorporate exogenous DNA from the environment into their genome via direct uptake. Transduction and conjugation are also processes by which exogenous DNA is incorporated, but involve other methods.
Transformation is defined as the process by which bacteria can incorporate exogenous DNA from the environment into their genome via direct uptake. Transduction and conjugation are also processes by which exogenous DNA is incorporated, but involve other methods.
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Sexually transmitted diseases are a common problem among young people in the United States. One of the more common diseases is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which leads to inflammation and purulent discharge in the male and female reproductive tracts.
The bacterium has a number of systems to evade host defenses. Upon infection, it uses pili to adhere to host epithelium. The bacterium also uses an enzyme, gonococcal sialyltransferase, to transfer a sialyic acid residue to a gonococcal surface lipooligosaccharide (LOS). A depiction of this can be seen in Figure 1. The sialyic acid residue mimics the protective capsule found on other bacterial species.
Once infection is established, Neisseria preferentially infects columnar epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract, and leads to a loss of cilia on these cells. Damage to the reproductive tract can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, which can complicate pregnancies later in the life of the woman.
A doctor uses a new antibiotic to fight off Neisseria infection. Shortly thereafter, resistance develops and the doctor finds that inoculating wild type bacteria with the pure DNA of resistant Neisseria organisms produces resistant colonies. Which of the following is the method of modification that the doctor is using?
Sexually transmitted diseases are a common problem among young people in the United States. One of the more common diseases is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which leads to inflammation and purulent discharge in the male and female reproductive tracts.
The bacterium has a number of systems to evade host defenses. Upon infection, it uses pili to adhere to host epithelium. The bacterium also uses an enzyme, gonococcal sialyltransferase, to transfer a sialyic acid residue to a gonococcal surface lipooligosaccharide (LOS). A depiction of this can be seen in Figure 1. The sialyic acid residue mimics the protective capsule found on other bacterial species.
Once infection is established, Neisseria preferentially infects columnar epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract, and leads to a loss of cilia on these cells. Damage to the reproductive tract can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, which can complicate pregnancies later in the life of the woman.
A doctor uses a new antibiotic to fight off Neisseria infection. Shortly thereafter, resistance develops and the doctor finds that inoculating wild type bacteria with the pure DNA of resistant Neisseria organisms produces resistant colonies. Which of the following is the method of modification that the doctor is using?
Transformation is the uptake of nucleic acid by competent cells, as was described in this question. Conjugation invovles cell-to-cell DNA transfer and transduction involves the use of a viral vector.
Transformation is the uptake of nucleic acid by competent cells, as was described in this question. Conjugation invovles cell-to-cell DNA transfer and transduction involves the use of a viral vector.
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Sexually transmitted diseases are a common problem among young people in the United States. One of the more common diseases is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which leads to inflammation and purulent discharge in the male and female reproductive tracts.
The bacterium has a number of systems to evade host defenses. Upon infection, it uses pili to adhere to host epithelium. The bacterium also uses an enzyme, gonococcal sialyltransferase, to transfer a sialyic acid residue to a gonococcal surface lipooligosaccharide (LOS). A depiction of this can be seen in Figure 1. The sialyic acid residue mimics the protective capsule found on other bacterial species.
Once infection is established, Neisseria preferentially infects columnar epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract, and leads to a loss of cilia on these cells. Damage to the reproductive tract can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, which can complicate pregnancies later in the life of the woman.
The doctor wants to study the resistance further, so he creates a bacteriophage that transmits the plasmid to other bacterial cells to produce new resistant colonies. Which of the following is the method that the doctor is now using?
Sexually transmitted diseases are a common problem among young people in the United States. One of the more common diseases is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which leads to inflammation and purulent discharge in the male and female reproductive tracts.
The bacterium has a number of systems to evade host defenses. Upon infection, it uses pili to adhere to host epithelium. The bacterium also uses an enzyme, gonococcal sialyltransferase, to transfer a sialyic acid residue to a gonococcal surface lipooligosaccharide (LOS). A depiction of this can be seen in Figure 1. The sialyic acid residue mimics the protective capsule found on other bacterial species.
Once infection is established, Neisseria preferentially infects columnar epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract, and leads to a loss of cilia on these cells. Damage to the reproductive tract can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, which can complicate pregnancies later in the life of the woman.
The doctor wants to study the resistance further, so he creates a bacteriophage that transmits the plasmid to other bacterial cells to produce new resistant colonies. Which of the following is the method that the doctor is now using?
The use of bacteriophage viral vectors to transmit genetic information is transduction, an alternative form of genetic modification to transformation or conjugation. Transformation involves direct uptake of genetic material. Conjugation involves cell-to-cell transfer of DNA.
The use of bacteriophage viral vectors to transmit genetic information is transduction, an alternative form of genetic modification to transformation or conjugation. Transformation involves direct uptake of genetic material. Conjugation involves cell-to-cell transfer of DNA.
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Which answer choice correctly pairs the mode of bacterial genetic transfer with its definition?
Which answer choice correctly pairs the mode of bacterial genetic transfer with its definition?
The three main modes of genetic transfer for prokaryotes are transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Transformation occurs when a bacterium picks up a piece of genetic material from its external environment and incorporates it into its own genome. Transduction is genetic transfer using a bacteriophage as a vector. Conjugation is direct gene transfer via sex pili.
The three main modes of genetic transfer for prokaryotes are transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Transformation occurs when a bacterium picks up a piece of genetic material from its external environment and incorporates it into its own genome. Transduction is genetic transfer using a bacteriophage as a vector. Conjugation is direct gene transfer via sex pili.
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Which of the following is a unique characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following is a unique characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
Prokaryotes lack a nuclear membrane, which allows translation to occur at the same time as transcription.
In eukaryotic cells the mRNA has to be exported to the cytoplasm before it can be translated. This transport requires post-transcriptional modification to protect the mRNA from degradation as it leaves the nucleus, a process unnecessary to prokaryotic cells. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes can have cell walls and cytoplasts (cytoplasm). Prokaryotes do, in fact, generate proton gradients in order to complete cellular respiration. These gradients are created across the prokaryotic cell membrane, rather than across the mitochondrial membrane.
Prokaryotes lack a nuclear membrane, which allows translation to occur at the same time as transcription.
In eukaryotic cells the mRNA has to be exported to the cytoplasm before it can be translated. This transport requires post-transcriptional modification to protect the mRNA from degradation as it leaves the nucleus, a process unnecessary to prokaryotic cells. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes can have cell walls and cytoplasts (cytoplasm). Prokaryotes do, in fact, generate proton gradients in order to complete cellular respiration. These gradients are created across the prokaryotic cell membrane, rather than across the mitochondrial membrane.
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