Individual Behavior and Learning - MCAT Social and Behavioral Sciences
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Excerpt from "The Social Problems of American Farmers" by Kenyon L. Butterfield, 1905
Butterfield, Kenyon L. "The Social Problems of American Farmers." American Journal of Sociology 10.5 (1905): 606-22.
Perhaps the one great underlying social difficulty among American farmers is their comparatively isolated mode of life. The farmer's family is isolated from other families. A small city of perhaps twenty thousand population will contain from four hundred to six hundred families per square mile, whereas a typical agricultural community in a prosperous agricultural state will hardly average more than ten families per square mile. The farming class is isolated from other classes. Farmers, of course, mingle considerably in a business and political way with the men of their trading town and county seat; but, broadly speaking, farmers do not associate freely with people living under urban conditions and possessing other than the rural point of view. It would be venturesome to suggest very definite generalizations with respect to the precise influence of these conditions, because, so far as the writer is aware, the psychology of isolation has not been worked out. But two or three conclusions seem to be admissible, and for that matter rather generally accepted.
The well-known conservatism of the farming class is doubtless largely due to class isolation. Habits, ideas, traditions, and ideals have long life in the rural community. Changes come slowly. There is a tendency to tread the well-worn paths. The farmer does not easily keep in touch with rapid modern development, unless the movements or methods directly affect him. Physical agencies which improve social conditions, such as electric lights, telephones, and pavements, come to the city first. The atmosphere of the country speaks peace and quiet. Nature's routine of sunshine and storm, of summer and winter, encourages routine and repetition in the man who works with her…
There is time to brood over wrongs, real and imaginary. Personal prejudices often grow to be rank and coarse-fibered. Neighborhood feuds are not uncommon and are often virulent. Leadership is made difficult and sometimes impossible. It is easy to fall into personal habits that may mark off the farmer from other classes of similar intelligence, and that bar him from his rightful social place.
It would, however, be distinctly unfair to the farm community if we did not emphasize some of the advantages that grow out of the rural mode of life. Farmers have time to think, and the typical American farmer is a man who has thought much and often deeply. A spirit of sturdy independence is generated, and freedom of will and of action is encouraged. Family life is nowhere so educative as in the country. The whole family cooperates for common ends, and in its individual members are bred the qualities of industry, patience, and perseverance. The manual work of the schools is but a makeshift for the old-fashioned training of the country-grown boy. Country life is an admirable preparation for the modern industrial and professional career.
According to the author, life on a farm can be extremely based around the family. It is in the family that most children learn morals from their parents. Kohlberg described several stages of moral development. In which of the following stages are most adults found?
Excerpt from "The Social Problems of American Farmers" by Kenyon L. Butterfield, 1905
Butterfield, Kenyon L. "The Social Problems of American Farmers." American Journal of Sociology 10.5 (1905): 606-22.
Perhaps the one great underlying social difficulty among American farmers is their comparatively isolated mode of life. The farmer's family is isolated from other families. A small city of perhaps twenty thousand population will contain from four hundred to six hundred families per square mile, whereas a typical agricultural community in a prosperous agricultural state will hardly average more than ten families per square mile. The farming class is isolated from other classes. Farmers, of course, mingle considerably in a business and political way with the men of their trading town and county seat; but, broadly speaking, farmers do not associate freely with people living under urban conditions and possessing other than the rural point of view. It would be venturesome to suggest very definite generalizations with respect to the precise influence of these conditions, because, so far as the writer is aware, the psychology of isolation has not been worked out. But two or three conclusions seem to be admissible, and for that matter rather generally accepted.
The well-known conservatism of the farming class is doubtless largely due to class isolation. Habits, ideas, traditions, and ideals have long life in the rural community. Changes come slowly. There is a tendency to tread the well-worn paths. The farmer does not easily keep in touch with rapid modern development, unless the movements or methods directly affect him. Physical agencies which improve social conditions, such as electric lights, telephones, and pavements, come to the city first. The atmosphere of the country speaks peace and quiet. Nature's routine of sunshine and storm, of summer and winter, encourages routine and repetition in the man who works with her…
There is time to brood over wrongs, real and imaginary. Personal prejudices often grow to be rank and coarse-fibered. Neighborhood feuds are not uncommon and are often virulent. Leadership is made difficult and sometimes impossible. It is easy to fall into personal habits that may mark off the farmer from other classes of similar intelligence, and that bar him from his rightful social place.
It would, however, be distinctly unfair to the farm community if we did not emphasize some of the advantages that grow out of the rural mode of life. Farmers have time to think, and the typical American farmer is a man who has thought much and often deeply. A spirit of sturdy independence is generated, and freedom of will and of action is encouraged. Family life is nowhere so educative as in the country. The whole family cooperates for common ends, and in its individual members are bred the qualities of industry, patience, and perseverance. The manual work of the schools is but a makeshift for the old-fashioned training of the country-grown boy. Country life is an admirable preparation for the modern industrial and professional career.
According to the author, life on a farm can be extremely based around the family. It is in the family that most children learn morals from their parents. Kohlberg described several stages of moral development. In which of the following stages are most adults found?
Most adults and adolescents are found on the conventional stage of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning. In this stage, people generally follow the rules because they believe it will benefit themselves and the society more than breaking the rules. Those in the post-conventional stage follow the rules based solely on their moral ideas of right and wrong, not necessarily the consequences. Most people do not reach this stage. Children are found in the pre-conventional stage. The concrete operational stage is part of Piaget’s stages of development.
Most adults and adolescents are found on the conventional stage of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning. In this stage, people generally follow the rules because they believe it will benefit themselves and the society more than breaking the rules. Those in the post-conventional stage follow the rules based solely on their moral ideas of right and wrong, not necessarily the consequences. Most people do not reach this stage. Children are found in the pre-conventional stage. The concrete operational stage is part of Piaget’s stages of development.
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Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At the end of his experience at the dog pound, Nate has grown to love the feeling of helping dogs. He feels positive about his individual worth. Nate has experienced a change in which of the following?
Jimmy and Nate both volunteer at the dog pound. Jimmy loves animals of all kinds and loves the chance to be around dogs. Nate doesn’t particularly like animals, but he needs service hours for a club he is in at school.
At the end of his experience at the dog pound, Nate has grown to love the feeling of helping dogs. He feels positive about his individual worth. Nate has experienced a change in which of the following?
Nate’s increase in self-worth directly correlates with “self-esteem,” or the belief that one’s self is important or valuable. “Self-efficacy” usually refers to one’s confidence in accomplishing a certain task. “Self-concept” is an idea of how someone internally defines himself or herself, or what sets that individual apart from others.
Nate’s increase in self-worth directly correlates with “self-esteem,” or the belief that one’s self is important or valuable. “Self-efficacy” usually refers to one’s confidence in accomplishing a certain task. “Self-concept” is an idea of how someone internally defines himself or herself, or what sets that individual apart from others.
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The idea of the looking-glass self suggests that a person's sense of self results from the perception of others. The sociological theory that best aligns with this idea is which of the following?
The idea of the looking-glass self suggests that a person's sense of self results from the perception of others. The sociological theory that best aligns with this idea is which of the following?
"Symbolic interactionism" states that meaning is a social product derived from interaction with others, and is the framework for the looking-glass self posited by Charles Cooley. On the other hand, "conflict theory" describes power and social stability, while the "labeling theory" examines the influence of terms attached to individuals. Last, "social constructionism" looks at the ways in which social realities are created by groups and individuals. It does not describe a person's self-identity.
"Symbolic interactionism" states that meaning is a social product derived from interaction with others, and is the framework for the looking-glass self posited by Charles Cooley. On the other hand, "conflict theory" describes power and social stability, while the "labeling theory" examines the influence of terms attached to individuals. Last, "social constructionism" looks at the ways in which social realities are created by groups and individuals. It does not describe a person's self-identity.
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Excerpt from "The Social Problems of American Farmers" by Kenyon L. Butterfield, 1905
Butterfield, Kenyon L. "The Social Problems of American Farmers." American Journal of Sociology 10.5 (1905): 606-22.
Perhaps the one great underlying social difficulty among American farmers is their comparatively isolated mode of life. The farmer's family is isolated from other families. A small city of perhaps twenty thousand population will contain from four hundred to six hundred families per square mile, whereas a typical agricultural community in a prosperous agricultural state will hardly average more than ten families per square mile. The farming class is isolated from other classes. Farmers, of course, mingle considerably in a business and political way with the men of their trading town and county seat; but, broadly speaking, farmers do not associate freely with people living under urban conditions and possessing other than the rural point of view. It would be venturesome to suggest very definite generalizations with respect to the precise influence of these conditions, because, so far as the writer is aware, the psychology of isolation has not been worked out. But two or three conclusions seem to be admissible, and for that matter rather generally accepted.
The well-known conservatism of the farming class is doubtless largely due to class isolation. Habits, ideas, traditions, and ideals have long life in the rural community. Changes come slowly. There is a tendency to tread the well-worn paths. The farmer does not easily keep in touch with rapid modern development, unless the movements or methods directly affect him. Physical agencies which improve social conditions, such as electric lights, telephones, and pavements, come to the city first. The atmosphere of the country speaks peace and quiet. Nature's routine of sunshine and storm, of summer and winter, encourages routine and repetition in the man who works with her…
There is time to brood over wrongs, real and imaginary. Personal prejudices often grow to be rank and coarse-fibered. Neighborhood feuds are not uncommon and are often virulent. Leadership is made difficult and sometimes impossible. It is easy to fall into personal habits that may mark off the farmer from other classes of similar intelligence, and that bar him from his rightful social place.
It would, however, be distinctly unfair to the farm community if we did not emphasize some of the advantages that grow out of the rural mode of life. Farmers have time to think, and the typical American farmer is a man who has thought much and often deeply. A spirit of sturdy independence is generated, and freedom of will and of action is encouraged. Family life is nowhere so educative as in the country. The whole family cooperates for common ends, and in its individual members are bred the qualities of industry, patience, and perseverance. The manual work of the schools is but a makeshift for the old-fashioned training of the country-grown boy. Country life is an admirable preparation for the modern industrial and professional career.
A popular stereotype about men from the rural areas of the South is that they have very quick tempers. One theory is that the ancestors of many Southerners came from areas of Europe where fighting was an honorable part of life. A person that believes that his genetics are primarily responsible for his aggressive actions displays which of the following?
Excerpt from "The Social Problems of American Farmers" by Kenyon L. Butterfield, 1905
Butterfield, Kenyon L. "The Social Problems of American Farmers." American Journal of Sociology 10.5 (1905): 606-22.
Perhaps the one great underlying social difficulty among American farmers is their comparatively isolated mode of life. The farmer's family is isolated from other families. A small city of perhaps twenty thousand population will contain from four hundred to six hundred families per square mile, whereas a typical agricultural community in a prosperous agricultural state will hardly average more than ten families per square mile. The farming class is isolated from other classes. Farmers, of course, mingle considerably in a business and political way with the men of their trading town and county seat; but, broadly speaking, farmers do not associate freely with people living under urban conditions and possessing other than the rural point of view. It would be venturesome to suggest very definite generalizations with respect to the precise influence of these conditions, because, so far as the writer is aware, the psychology of isolation has not been worked out. But two or three conclusions seem to be admissible, and for that matter rather generally accepted.
The well-known conservatism of the farming class is doubtless largely due to class isolation. Habits, ideas, traditions, and ideals have long life in the rural community. Changes come slowly. There is a tendency to tread the well-worn paths. The farmer does not easily keep in touch with rapid modern development, unless the movements or methods directly affect him. Physical agencies which improve social conditions, such as electric lights, telephones, and pavements, come to the city first. The atmosphere of the country speaks peace and quiet. Nature's routine of sunshine and storm, of summer and winter, encourages routine and repetition in the man who works with her…
There is time to brood over wrongs, real and imaginary. Personal prejudices often grow to be rank and coarse-fibered. Neighborhood feuds are not uncommon and are often virulent. Leadership is made difficult and sometimes impossible. It is easy to fall into personal habits that may mark off the farmer from other classes of similar intelligence, and that bar him from his rightful social place.
It would, however, be distinctly unfair to the farm community if we did not emphasize some of the advantages that grow out of the rural mode of life. Farmers have time to think, and the typical American farmer is a man who has thought much and often deeply. A spirit of sturdy independence is generated, and freedom of will and of action is encouraged. Family life is nowhere so educative as in the country. The whole family cooperates for common ends, and in its individual members are bred the qualities of industry, patience, and perseverance. The manual work of the schools is but a makeshift for the old-fashioned training of the country-grown boy. Country life is an admirable preparation for the modern industrial and professional career.
A popular stereotype about men from the rural areas of the South is that they have very quick tempers. One theory is that the ancestors of many Southerners came from areas of Europe where fighting was an honorable part of life. A person that believes that his genetics are primarily responsible for his aggressive actions displays which of the following?
A locus of control describes how someone views the development of events in his or her life. People with a high internal locus of control believes that they can control a situation through their own actions. People with a high external locus of control believe that life is primarily controlled by the environment. Since the person in the scenario believes that genetics (over which they have no control) are to blame for aggressive behavior, they have a high external locus and a low internal locus of control.
A locus of control describes how someone views the development of events in his or her life. People with a high internal locus of control believes that they can control a situation through their own actions. People with a high external locus of control believe that life is primarily controlled by the environment. Since the person in the scenario believes that genetics (over which they have no control) are to blame for aggressive behavior, they have a high external locus and a low internal locus of control.
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Which of the following would be characteristic of a somatic efferent neuron?
Which of the following would be characteristic of a somatic efferent neuron?
A generalized reflex arc describes the detection of an environmental signal, interpretation of that signal, and stimulation of a response.
Afferent fibers are generally classified as "sensory afferent" and describe the neural fibers that are excited by an external stimulus. Afferent fibers always carry signals toward to central nervous system. Various interneuron fibers within the central nervous system can then be stimulated to process and integrate the signal. Interneurons then stimulate efferent neurons, which carry signals away from the central nervous system. Somatic efferent neurons interface with muscle fibers and can cause a physical response.
For example, if you place your hand on a hot stove, sensory afferent fibers will carry to signal to your brain, where interneurons will interpret the signal and stimulate somatic efferent fibers to contract your biceps and pull your hand away from the surface.*
*In certain cases, the interneuron will be located in the spinal cord. In monosynaptic reflexes, no interneuron is used. The example presented is only a generalized model and is not meant to be universally applicable.
A generalized reflex arc describes the detection of an environmental signal, interpretation of that signal, and stimulation of a response.
Afferent fibers are generally classified as "sensory afferent" and describe the neural fibers that are excited by an external stimulus. Afferent fibers always carry signals toward to central nervous system. Various interneuron fibers within the central nervous system can then be stimulated to process and integrate the signal. Interneurons then stimulate efferent neurons, which carry signals away from the central nervous system. Somatic efferent neurons interface with muscle fibers and can cause a physical response.
For example, if you place your hand on a hot stove, sensory afferent fibers will carry to signal to your brain, where interneurons will interpret the signal and stimulate somatic efferent fibers to contract your biceps and pull your hand away from the surface.*
*In certain cases, the interneuron will be located in the spinal cord. In monosynaptic reflexes, no interneuron is used. The example presented is only a generalized model and is not meant to be universally applicable.
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Glia are non-neuronal cells which have specialized functions for supporting neurons. Which of the following is not a glial cell?
Glia are non-neuronal cells which have specialized functions for supporting neurons. Which of the following is not a glial cell?
“Myelin” is the insulating sheath wrapped around many axons to increase the speed of conduction of action potentials. It is not a type of glial cell even though glial cells form it.
The remaining answers are all examples of glia. “Schwann cells” (located in the peripheral nervous system) and “oligodendrocytes” (located in the central nervous system) form myelin. “Astrocytes” (located in the central nervous system) are star-shaped glial cells with many roles, including providing metabolic and structural support to neurons. “Microglia” help to remove debris. Last, “ependymal cells” form cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
“Myelin” is the insulating sheath wrapped around many axons to increase the speed of conduction of action potentials. It is not a type of glial cell even though glial cells form it.
The remaining answers are all examples of glia. “Schwann cells” (located in the peripheral nervous system) and “oligodendrocytes” (located in the central nervous system) form myelin. “Astrocytes” (located in the central nervous system) are star-shaped glial cells with many roles, including providing metabolic and structural support to neurons. “Microglia” help to remove debris. Last, “ependymal cells” form cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
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Which part of the brain is chiefly responsible for planning and problem solving?
Which part of the brain is chiefly responsible for planning and problem solving?
The “frontal lobe” is involved in more complex reasoning (e.g. planning & problem solving) as well as voluntary movement. It contains the primary motor cortex in which voluntary movements are initiated.
The “occipital lobe” is important for visual processing. The “parietal lobe” contains the somatosensory cortex and thus is highly important for sensation. The “temporal lobe” is important for auditory and olfactory processing as well as language (i.e. Wernicke's area) and memory (i.e. the hippocampus). Last, the “cerebellum” is responsible for balance and coordinating movements.
The “frontal lobe” is involved in more complex reasoning (e.g. planning & problem solving) as well as voluntary movement. It contains the primary motor cortex in which voluntary movements are initiated.
The “occipital lobe” is important for visual processing. The “parietal lobe” contains the somatosensory cortex and thus is highly important for sensation. The “temporal lobe” is important for auditory and olfactory processing as well as language (i.e. Wernicke's area) and memory (i.e. the hippocampus). Last, the “cerebellum” is responsible for balance and coordinating movements.
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Which of the following behaviors accurately describes a baby's Babinski reflex?
Which of the following behaviors accurately describes a baby's Babinski reflex?
The Babinski reflex occurs when a baby moves his or her big toe upward in response to feeling a stroke on the bottom of his or her foot. The other three reflexes described in the answer choices all have different names. When something touches the roof of a baby's mouth, the baby will suck, which is referred to as the sucking reflex. The walking/stepping reflex is when a baby makes a stepping motion after feeling one of his feet touch a flat surface. Finally, the palmar grasp reflex is when a baby grasps his hand in response to feeling a stroke on his palm.
The Babinski reflex occurs when a baby moves his or her big toe upward in response to feeling a stroke on the bottom of his or her foot. The other three reflexes described in the answer choices all have different names. When something touches the roof of a baby's mouth, the baby will suck, which is referred to as the sucking reflex. The walking/stepping reflex is when a baby makes a stepping motion after feeling one of his feet touch a flat surface. Finally, the palmar grasp reflex is when a baby grasps his hand in response to feeling a stroke on his palm.
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From most basic to most complex, what is the correct order of movement types that occur during human development?
From most basic to most complex, what is the correct order of movement types that occur during human development?
The earliest movements humans perform during motor development are known as reflexive movements. These are followed by rudimentary movements, and then fundamental movements. The final stage is known as the lifelong application stage in which movements are continually adjusted and refined for efficiency. Last, the specialized movement stage is sometimes broken up into two stages: the transitional substage and the application substage; however, none of the answer choices mention either of those substages.
The earliest movements humans perform during motor development are known as reflexive movements. These are followed by rudimentary movements, and then fundamental movements. The final stage is known as the lifelong application stage in which movements are continually adjusted and refined for efficiency. Last, the specialized movement stage is sometimes broken up into two stages: the transitional substage and the application substage; however, none of the answer choices mention either of those substages.
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Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
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Alice's dog is very anxious around cats; every time he sees one he whines. Alice began taking her dog for a walk every morning and passed the neighbor's house with cats that perched themselves on the windowsill. Her dog would whine until the cats were out of sight. Eventually, the cats disappeared from the windowsill; however, her dog continued to whine whenever he saw the neighbor's house.
In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
Alice's dog is very anxious around cats; every time he sees one he whines. Alice began taking her dog for a walk every morning and passed the neighbor's house with cats that perched themselves on the windowsill. Her dog would whine until the cats were out of sight. Eventually, the cats disappeared from the windowsill; however, her dog continued to whine whenever he saw the neighbor's house.
In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
The unconditioned stimulus is the cats and the unconditioned response is whining. This is because it is made clear that, from the beginning, the dog whines upon seeing cats. No conditioning has occurred to cause this behavior. The house represents the neutral stimulus, because it is being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the cats). Walking past the house with the cats every morning represents the period of the dog's conditioning (i.e. he is repeatedly seeing the unconditioned stimulus paired with the neutral stimulus).
Eventually, the unconditioned stimulus (the cats) disappears. This is the period after conditioning, and if conditioned well, then the dog will continue to whine (which is now the conditioned response) when seeing the house (which is now the conditioned stimulus).
For comparison, Pavlov's dogs always salivated (unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (a bell) was rung while showing the food to the dogs (i.e. the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus). Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (no food) triggered salivation in the dogs. The bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response.
The unconditioned stimulus is the cats and the unconditioned response is whining. This is because it is made clear that, from the beginning, the dog whines upon seeing cats. No conditioning has occurred to cause this behavior. The house represents the neutral stimulus, because it is being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the cats). Walking past the house with the cats every morning represents the period of the dog's conditioning (i.e. he is repeatedly seeing the unconditioned stimulus paired with the neutral stimulus).
Eventually, the unconditioned stimulus (the cats) disappears. This is the period after conditioning, and if conditioned well, then the dog will continue to whine (which is now the conditioned response) when seeing the house (which is now the conditioned stimulus).
For comparison, Pavlov's dogs always salivated (unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (a bell) was rung while showing the food to the dogs (i.e. the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus). Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (no food) triggered salivation in the dogs. The bell became the conditioned stimulus and the salivation became the conditioned response.
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Alice's dog hates vacuum cleaners. He has been conditioned to bark every time she opens the closet door, because usually this means she will begin vacuuming. She begins storing her shoes in the closet and keeps the vacuum in the basement; however, he continues to bark when she opens the closet door. Consider the given processes associated with the scenario.
Process A
If Alice continues to open the closet door without beginning to vacuum, then eventually the dog will stop barking.
Process B
If Alice then stops using the closet altogether for several months, and then suddenly opens it again, the dog will begin barking.
What are the two processes (A and B) that best describe this scenario?
Alice's dog hates vacuum cleaners. He has been conditioned to bark every time she opens the closet door, because usually this means she will begin vacuuming. She begins storing her shoes in the closet and keeps the vacuum in the basement; however, he continues to bark when she opens the closet door. Consider the given processes associated with the scenario.
Process A
If Alice continues to open the closet door without beginning to vacuum, then eventually the dog will stop barking.
Process B
If Alice then stops using the closet altogether for several months, and then suddenly opens it again, the dog will begin barking.
What are the two processes (A and B) that best describe this scenario?
The process of repeatedly seeing the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the opening of the closet door) without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., vacuuming) is extinction. The dog has stopped associating the opening of the closet door with the frightening vacuum.
If the subject is not exposed to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. opening the closet door) for a period of time (e.g. several months, though this could be shorter or longer depending on the situation) and then is suddenly re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus, then spontaneous recovery can occur. The conditioned response suddenly occurs again when exposed to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, Alice opens the door several months later and the dog barks again. If she continues to open the door again, without using the vacuum, the extinction process will occur again.
“Acquisition” is the initial process of conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus (e.g. opening of the closet door) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. vacuuming). “Generalization” is when similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus trigger the conditioned response. For example, if the dog began barking when Alice opened any door. “Discrimination” is when only the specific conditioned stimulus triggers the conditioned response (i.e. only the opening of the closet door, not any other, door) elicits the barking.
The process of repeatedly seeing the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the opening of the closet door) without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., vacuuming) is extinction. The dog has stopped associating the opening of the closet door with the frightening vacuum.
If the subject is not exposed to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. opening the closet door) for a period of time (e.g. several months, though this could be shorter or longer depending on the situation) and then is suddenly re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus, then spontaneous recovery can occur. The conditioned response suddenly occurs again when exposed to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, Alice opens the door several months later and the dog barks again. If she continues to open the door again, without using the vacuum, the extinction process will occur again.
“Acquisition” is the initial process of conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus (e.g. opening of the closet door) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. vacuuming). “Generalization” is when similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus trigger the conditioned response. For example, if the dog began barking when Alice opened any door. “Discrimination” is when only the specific conditioned stimulus triggers the conditioned response (i.e. only the opening of the closet door, not any other, door) elicits the barking.
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Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
Diana takes the subway to and from school every day. Her family’s apartment, situated in a low-income neighborhood of New York City, is a thirty-minute walk from the subway station. During her trips to the subway, Diana loves to watch people work, play, and socialize. She feels very safe in her community because she trusts the people around her.
On a different occasion, Diana stumbles on a set of stairs and crashes towards the pavement. She reaches out to break her fall and feels a crackling sensation as her hand hits the ground. She finds a large scrape across her palm that does not completely heal for weeks. For months after this event, Diana feels anxious whenever she sees a set of stairs. In terms of classical conditioning, the sight of stairs would be described as which of the following?
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
When Diana sees a set of stairs, they act as a stimulus to induce anxiety. Since she did not feel this way before the accident, the sight of stairs would be a “conditioned stimulus.” Anxiety is the “conditioned response.” The initial stumble and injury would be the “unconditioned stimulus” and “response,” respectively.
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Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
The passage describes classical conditioning, which of the following best describes the relationship between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
The passage describes classical conditioning, which of the following best describes the relationship between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning, as described in the passage, pairs a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a bell) with another behavior (e.g. receiving food). Eventually, according to the precepts of classical conditioning the bell will elicit a response (e.g. salivating in anticipation of receiving food). On the other hand, operant conditioning is a type of learning that is mediated by punishments and rewards/reinforcements. The punishment or reinforcement either encourages or discourages the learner from repeating a certain behavior.
Classical conditioning, as described in the passage, pairs a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a bell) with another behavior (e.g. receiving food). Eventually, according to the precepts of classical conditioning the bell will elicit a response (e.g. salivating in anticipation of receiving food). On the other hand, operant conditioning is a type of learning that is mediated by punishments and rewards/reinforcements. The punishment or reinforcement either encourages or discourages the learner from repeating a certain behavior.
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Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of generalization, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of generalization, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
According to the idea of generalization, a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus will elicit the conditioned response. If this hamster has generalized the stimulus, then he will recognize the knock on his cage as being similar (or the same) as the flick on his cage. As a result, we can expect the hamster to run to his food dish in anticipation of being fed. If the hamster ignored the stimulus, then that would be a good example of discrimination, not generalization. Additionally, while it is possible, we have no reason to believe that the hamster would become fearful or would run on his wheel based on the idea of generalization.
According to the idea of generalization, a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus will elicit the conditioned response. If this hamster has generalized the stimulus, then he will recognize the knock on his cage as being similar (or the same) as the flick on his cage. As a result, we can expect the hamster to run to his food dish in anticipation of being fed. If the hamster ignored the stimulus, then that would be a good example of discrimination, not generalization. Additionally, while it is possible, we have no reason to believe that the hamster would become fearful or would run on his wheel based on the idea of generalization.
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Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of discrimination, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to feeding his hamster, a young boy flicks the side of the hamster's cage so that the hamster hears a "bang" noise. He does this every time before feeding the hamster. Based on the passage and the idea of discrimination, what behavior can we expect the hamster to perform upon hearing someone knock on the cage, instead of flicking the cage?
According to the idea of discrimination, a conditioned stimulus can be distinguished from other stimuli. If the hamster has been able to discriminate, then it is likely that he will ignore the knock on the cage, and recognize that the knock sound is not the same as a flick sound. On the other hand, if the hamster generalizes the stimulus, then he will respond to the knock in the same way that he responds to the flick, and run to his food dish. Based on the idea of discrimination_,_ we have no reason to expect the hamster to run on his wheel, or to try to escape in fear.
According to the idea of discrimination, a conditioned stimulus can be distinguished from other stimuli. If the hamster has been able to discriminate, then it is likely that he will ignore the knock on the cage, and recognize that the knock sound is not the same as a flick sound. On the other hand, if the hamster generalizes the stimulus, then he will respond to the knock in the same way that he responds to the flick, and run to his food dish. Based on the idea of discrimination_,_ we have no reason to expect the hamster to run on his wheel, or to try to escape in fear.
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Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
In the example of Pavlov's dogs, which of the following could be considered as the neutral stimulus?
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov extensively studied learning in animals. Most significantly, he contributed to the idea that is currently referred to as classical conditioning. Many know him from the popularly cited Pavlovian dog study from the greater experiment known as Lectures on the Function of the Principle Digestive Glands (1897).
In the Pavlovian dog experiment, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with a pleasurable one. The neutral stimulus was the ringing sound of a metronome, while the pleasurable stimulus was food. Pavlov never fed his dogs without ringing the metronome first, and as a result, his dogs would later salivate upon hearing the sound of the metronome. This learning process is known as conditioning, and this this specific instance, classical conditioning.
Later, Pavlov began ringing the metronome without feeding the dogs. As a result, the dogs eventually stopped salivating upon hearing the metronome. This is known as extinction. Finally, upon reintroducing the metronome/food pairing, the dogs quickly began salivating again, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
In the example of Pavlov's dogs, which of the following could be considered as the neutral stimulus?
The neutral stimulus is defined as the stimulus that does not initially elicit a response. After conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus turns into the conditioned stimulus. In this example, the metronome initially elicited no response; however, it elicited the response of salivation, post conditioning. The dogs did not salivate prior to conditioning, and after conditioning the salivation can be considered a conditioned response.
The neutral stimulus is defined as the stimulus that does not initially elicit a response. After conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus turns into the conditioned stimulus. In this example, the metronome initially elicited no response; however, it elicited the response of salivation, post conditioning. The dogs did not salivate prior to conditioning, and after conditioning the salivation can be considered a conditioned response.
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American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In operant conditioning, what is the term used to describe taking away a desired stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring?
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning.Like all great academics, Skinner was not without influence. His work was inspired primarily based on Thorndike's Law of Effect. This law states that behaviors paired with positive consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be repeated, while behaviors paired with unpleasant consequences/effects/rewards are likely to be avoided.
While this principal inspired Skinner, he researched it further and named this principle operant conditioning. Skinner's research showed that conditioning/learning could occur through the use of punishments and rewards. The two important concepts of operant conditioning include punishment and reinforcement. Finally, Skinner also discussed the possibility of a neutral operant, which neither increased nor decreased the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
In operant conditioning, what is the term used to describe taking away a desired stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring?
Reinforcement always acts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring; therefore, "positive reinforcement" and "negative reinforcement" can be eliminated. "Positive punishment" acts to add an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. On the other hand, "negative punishment" acts to remove a desired stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior occurring, like the question asks.
Reinforcement always acts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring; therefore, "positive reinforcement" and "negative reinforcement" can be eliminated. "Positive punishment" acts to add an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. On the other hand, "negative punishment" acts to remove a desired stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior occurring, like the question asks.
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Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
Alice is watching videos on her cellular phone during math class and her teacher notices. Her teacher scolds her to stop and tells her she must write an essay about why math is important.
Which type of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
The correct answer is “positive punishment.” The teacher is adding the essay assignment making it positive, and she is aiming to decrease the behavior of watching videos in class making it a punishment. As shown in the figure, if something is removed (e.g. loss of computer privileges) this would be negative, and if the aim is to increase the behavior (e.g., a parent trying to make a student study more) it is considered to be reinforcement.
Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a new stimulus to the desired response. A famous example is Pavlov's dogs that salivated (i.e. unconditioned response) in response to seeing food (i.e. unconditioned stimulus). During the conditioning period, a neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell) is rung while showing the food to the dogs; that is, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Following the conditioning period, the bell alone (i.e. without the presence of food) triggers salivation in the dogs. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and the salivation becomes the conditioned response.
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Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
Alice is trying to train her dog to sit on command before her in-laws come over. She does not care if the behavior lasts after their visit; she just wants him to learn the trick quickly. She plans to use dog biscuits at first to reinforce the behavior.
Based on her situation and desires, what type of reinforcement schedule should Alice follow?
The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
The question specifies that Alice wants the dog to learn quickly; regardless if he loses the skill quickly. This describes the result of following a continuous reinforcement schedule (i.e. rewarding the dog with a biscuit every time he sits after the command. There is rapid acquisition of the desired behavior; however, continuous reinforcement results in rapid extinction.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement results in slow acquisition yet slow extinction of the behavior. If Alice were determined for her dog to acquire this skill for the long-term, this schedule would be more appropriate. That is, she should sometimes reward the dog with a biscuit and sometimes not. It will take longer for the dog to learn to sit on command, but the behavior will last longer.
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