The Ancient Egyptian numerical system first developed sometime around 3100 BCE and was in a continual state of evolution thereafter, until it fell out of use around 400 CE. It was hieroglyphic in nature, with each number represented and depicted in pictorial form, and relied upon a base ten system, in which symbols were designated in increments of ten. (For example, the symbol for the number one was a single stroke, number ten was represented by a cattle hobble, and one hundred was shown as a coil of rope.) The Ancient Egyptians had no concept of zero; in fact, they would not come to understand this numerical reality for many centuries. This knowledge was finally transmitted to Ancient Egypt sometime in the mid-eighteenth century BCE, through their frequent trade and travel contacts with Middle Eastern and Asian civilizations.

A mastaba is a special type of tomb, in use for centuries throughout Ancient Egyptian history by pharaohs, royal family members, and aristocrats alike. Mastabas were not just simple tombs; rather, they were constructed with a very particular goal in mind: to serve as a house for the deceased person’s spirit. Mastabas had two structural components: an above-ground superstructure (usually shaped like a bench) and a massive underground substructure where the deceased would live. Accordingly, the underground sections of a mastaba would be filled with all the various goods and possessions (such as food, drink, clothing, and furniture) that any individual would need to survive in the afterlife. Later on, once pyramids became more popular, several mastabas would be built in groups, to form a royal court, around a pharaoh’s pyramid, so that his family and friends could surround him during the afterlife.

In ancient Egyptian art, women are almost universally depicted as young and fertile. Women’s hips are heavily emphasized - to demonstrate the importance of women’s role in childbirth. Unlike men, women were never depicted beyond child bearing age. This may be understood as part of society’s desire to highlight the reproductive role of women.

To the ancient Egyptians, sport and games were generally part of a pre-ordained, ritual process. That is to say, the winner was predetermined and the sports (like boxing and wrestling) were actual ritual bouts between a good side “Egypt; a benevolent God” and a bad side “Egypt’s enemies; a malevolent God.”

“Negative Confessions” were part of the judgment of the dead in Egyptian theology. The ancient Egyptians believed that a deceased individual had to first pass the judgment of Osiris before moving on to the afterlife. This was generally understood as a sort of trial, whereby an individual had to first deny a series of accusations of wrongdoing (“negative confessions”) and then had to pass the weighing of the heart.

Iconography was extremely important in Egyptian culture. It was used to promote uniformity of religious belief and adherence to the rule of the Pharaoh. One such example is the “Nine Bows.” The “Nine Bows” were meant to represent the various enemies of Egypt and were always shown under the power of the Pharaoh’s might. There is no concrete list of the “Nine Bows” and the nations they represented obviously changed throughout Egyptian history as Egypt developed new enemies.

The Palette of Narmer or the Great Hierakonpolis Palette represents an archaeologically excavated artifact with iconographic depictions of the early pharaoh Narmer and several gods/divine beings.

Image is in the public domain, accessed through Wikipedia Media Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Palette_de_Narmer.jpg

In Egyptian mythology, Bennu (or Benu) was a legendary phoenix type creature. It was worshipped by some ancient Egyptians as early as the beginning of the dynastic era. The Bennu was thought to have helped create the world and was sometimes viewed as an incarnation of Ra or Atum. The Egyptians believed that Benu sat atop the benben (the location of the “primordial hill of creation” where the world was born) and that he controlled the constant process of rebirth at the heart of the cosmic cycle.

“The Smiting Scene” is a powerful component of Egyptian iconography and is commonly found throughout ancient Egyptian dynastic history. “The Smiting Scene” depicts the Pharaoh smiting his enemies and was meant to project Pharaonic power, rather than accurately depict historical events.

The Egyptians believed in ritual and superstition. The ritual destruction of red pots, for example, was believed to protect the tomb of a deceased ruler and to ward off evil spirits.