Autotrophs are organisms that produce complex organic compounds from substances present in the surroundings. These organisms may do this through the use of energy from light or from inorganic chemical reactions.

In contrast, heterotrophs require organic input in order to generate biological compounds and are unable to use light or inorganic materials for energy.

Plants have a multicellular haploid stage called the gametophyte. Gametophytes () produce gametes () through mitosis, which combine to produce a zygote (). The zygote grows into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte (), which produces spores () through meiosis. Those spores give rise to multicellular gametophytes.

Bryophytes are nonvascular plants, such as mosses. Gametophytes are species that have haploid cells during their mature lives, while sporophytes are predominantly diploid during their adult phases.

Bryophytes have the gametophyte generation as dominant, with the sporophytes relying on the parental gametophyte. Starting with the evolution of seedless vascular plants, the gametophytes become reduced and are no longer the dominant life cycle. By the formation of angiosperms (seed plants), the gametophytes have become dependent on the parental sporophyte. 

All plants can be classified as either bryophytes or tracheophytes. Plants that contain transport vessels (xylem and phloem) are tracheophytes, while those without transport vessels are bryophytes. All plants contain cell walls and chloroplasts, but only a tracheophyte would contain xylem. Plasmids are structures that are almost exclusively found in bacteria or protozoans.

All chordates are deuterostomes, not protostomes. During early development, the formation of the blastopore leads to the growth of the digestive tract. In protostomes, the blastopore develops into the mouth, while in deuterostomes it becomes the anus.

All chordates have a notochord during development, which eventually gives rise to the nervous system. Chordates also have a coelom, or fluid filled cavity, somewhere within the body and they all exhibit bilateral symmetry.

Chordates must have, at some point in their embryogenesis, all features except vertebrae. Although the vast majority of chordates are vertebrates, Amphioxus has only a notochord. This primitive organism never develops vertebrae. Man has gill arches, and remnants of these are seen in certain congenital malformations. The notochordal remnants can give rise to the tumor known as a chordoma. The brain has ventricles (it is tubular) and it is certainly dorsal. Finally, human tail persists in about one per million live births.  

The phylum chordata has a few key characteristics. They are deuterostomes, meaning that the anus arises from the blastopore. They have a coelom that arises from the mesoderm during development, and at some point they have a tail, pharyngeal slits, and a notochord.

Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordata, so not all chordates are vertebrates (though all vertebrates are chordates).

Centrioles are generally only found in animal cells, but have been found in a variety of eukaryotes. There are a small subset of plants that do contain centrioles. Some plant cells have flagella and peroxisomes.

A secondary consumer is a step above the primary consumer (herbivore) on the food chain, consisting of omnivores and carnivores. A mouse that lives off plant matter and is thus a primary consumer. When a snake eats the mouse, it is the secondary consumer in the food web.

With every advancement in the trophic level, energy converts on a ten-to-one scale. For example, ten kilograms of grain fed to a steer produces roughly one kilogram of beef. This is true for every step up the tropic food pyramid.