Organisms have the ability to reproduce in various ways outside of sexual reproduction. Mechanisms of asexual reproduction include binary fission, budding, regeneration, and parthenogenesis. Binary fission refers to mitotic division, leading to independent daughter offspring. Budding refers to the growth of a viable offspring from the main organism, before becoming mature and detaching. Regeneration refers to the ability to reproduce from a severed appendage. Parthenogenesis refers to development of an embryo without being fertilized.

Induction is involved in cell-cell communication during embryogenesis, causing one group of cells to change an adjacent group's behavior. It is not a method of asexual reproduction, and is therefore the correct answer. 

Extra-genomic DNA is DNA that does not originate from the nuclear genome. DNA from mitochondria is passed down from generation to generation from the mother to the offspring. It is considered extra-genomic because the genome for mitochondria comes from the actual cell constituent rather than the nucleus of the cell.

Other examples of extra-genomic DNA are plasmids and viral genomes that may become incorporated during the lysogenic viral cycle.

Any chromosomal DNA is considered genomic, and is contained in the organismal genome.

The passage tells us that the type of fatty linkages in cell membranes can tell us what domain an organism belongs to.  For example, bacteria have ester linkages while archea have ether linkages.  The other answers are wrong for a few reasons.  All cells have DNA as their primary genetic material.  Viruses have RNA sometimes, but they aren't considered alive.  Both bacteria and plants have cell walls, so that won't tell us for sure what the domain is.  As stated in the passage, all cells have cellular membranes.  While the environment can tell us a bit about the cell, the passage doesn't say it is a sure way to know, so we can't make an assumption based on that.

Bacteria can be killed by antibiotics, whereas viruses cannot. 

Both bacteria and viruses have genetic material, can cause disease, and are smaller than eukaryotic cells. Neither of them has a nucleus.

T-lymphocytes are members of the adaptive immune system, and are only activated after the innate immune system fails to eliminate the antigen. The adaptive immune system is a more specified response to the antigen, requiring previous exposure to the foreign pathogen and involving the secretion of antibodies. In contrast, the innate immune response does not require previous exposure or involve antibody release.

Both bacteria and eukaryotic cells regulate their cytosolic osmoles in order to both maintain the integrity of their cell membranes and to maintain proper functioning of cytosolic proteins. Although bacteria have the added protection of a cell wall, they still rely on ion gradients to regulate the uptake and release of nutrients. Both regulate transcription using transcription factors and undergo aerobic respiration. Bacteria do NOT process their mRNA. Rather, it can be transcribed and translated simultaneously.

It is always difficult to rephrase "survival of the fittest" in some new, clever way. The flowers which BY CHANCE have developed a different color, pattern, or odor that better attracts pollinators are indeed more likely to experience reproductive success and pass on these genes to their offspring. Competing plants might do well for a while, but they are already disfavored, and further environmental changes may put them even more at risk (or have no effect, or again favor them over the presently more attractive plants).

The horse choice is an example of intentional breeding—artificial selection.

The storm option does not imply any condition in any of the plants which conferred an advantage against freezing to death, or even any difference between species of plants; it is more akin to a question about mass extinction than to one about evolution.

The giraffe choice relates to the Lamarckian fallacy of being able to pass on acquired characteristics; species that are more successful just plain "luck out" relative to environmental stresses.  

The bacterial response discusses a mutation without likely survival implications for the bacterium.

Vertebrates have adapted to terrestial living due to their ability to maintain water inside their bodies, despite no longer being immersed in water. The loop of Henle in the nephrons is designed to concentrate urine, reabsorbing water without unnecessarily excreting it. The longer the loops descend into the medulla, the more concentrated the urine becomes. Shorter loops would not concentrate urine as much, and thus would not contribute to a vertebrate's adaptation to land-based life.

Internal lungs, impermeable skin, and internal fertilization would all protect vital processes from interference by the external environment.

In this scenario, the two extreme phenotypes are selected for, while intermediate phenotypes are selected against. This is disruptive natural selection. Over time, disruptive selection results in a decreased frequency of "middle" phenotypes and an increased frequency of the two groups at the extreme ends. This is a process that can eventually lead to speciation.

The opposite is process stabilizing selection, in which the extreme variations are selected against in favor of more "average" phenotypes. Directional selection occurs when only one end of the spectrum is favored, such as sharp teeth but not dull teeth. Artificial selection involves human intervention in selecting desirable traits. Vestigial selection is not a type of natural selection.

Large size is favored in males and small size is favored in females, but intermediate size is always disfavored. The result is an increase in the two extreme phenotypes (either large or small) and a decrease in the average phenotype. This type of trend is known as disruptive selection.

Stabilizing selection occurs when the extreme phenotypes are disfavored, and the average or intermediate phenotype is preferable. Directional selection occurs when only one extreme phenotype is advantageous, for example if only large felines were able to find mates. Genetic drift is the phenomenon by which the allele frequencies of a population change by chance, due to independent assortment or other random events. The bottleneck effect occurs when an outside event, such as disease or natural disaster, diminishes the original population such that the allele frequencies of the new population differ from those of the original.